Overview

This course builds on DS110 (Python for Data Science) by expanding on programming language, systems, and algorithmic concepts introduced in the prior course. The course begins by exploring the different types of programming languages and introducing students to important systems level concepts such as computer architecture, compilers, file systems, and using the command line. It then moves to introducing a high performance language (Rust) and how to use it to implement a number of fundamental CS data structures and algorithms (lists, queues, trees, graphs etc). Then it covers how to use Rust in conjunction with external libraries to perform data manipulation and analysis.

Prerequisites: CDS 110 or equivalent

A1 Course Staff

Section A1 Instructor: Thomas Gardos
Email: tgardos@bu.edu
Office hours: Tuesdays, 3:30-4:45pm @ CCDS 1623

If you want to meet but cannot make office hours, send a private note on Piazza with at least 2 suggestions for times that you are available, and we will find a time to meet.

A1 TAs

• Zach Gentile

  • Email: zgentile@bu.edu
  • Office Hours: Mondays, 1:30-3:30pm
  • Location: CDS 15th Floor (Office Hours Area)

• Emir Tali

  • Email: etali@bu.edu
  • Office Hours: Wednesdays, 11:30am - 1:30pm

A1 CAs

• Ting-Hung Jen

  • Email: allen027@bu.edu
  • Office Hours: Fridays 3:30-5:30
  • Location: CDS 15th Floor (Office Hours Area)

• Matt Morris

  • Email: mattmorr@bu.edu
  • Office Hours: Mon/Wed 12:15-1:15

B1 Course Staff

Section B1 Instructor: Lauren Wheelock
Email: laurenbw@bu.edu
Office hours: Wed 2:30-4:00 @ CCDS 1506 Coffee slots: Fri 2:30-3:30 @ CCDS 1506

If you want to meet but cannot make office hours, send a private note on Piazza with at least 2 suggestions for times that you are available, and we will find a time to meet.

B1 Teaching Assistant

• TA: Joey Russoniello
  • Email: jmrusso@bu.edu
  • Office Hours: Thursdays, 10am-12 noon
  • Location: CDS 15th Floor (Office Hours Area)

B1 Course Assistants |

• Ava Yip

  • Email: avayip@bu.edu
  • Office Hours: Tuesdays 3:45-5:45
  • Location: CDS 15th Floor (Office Hours Area)

• Pratik Tribhuwan

  • Email: pratikrt@bu.edu
  • Office Hours: Fridays 12:00-2:00
  • Location: CDS 15th Floor (Office Hours Area)

Lectures and Discussions

A1 Lecture: Tuesdays, Thursdays 2:00pm-3:15pm (LAW AUD)

Section A Discussions (Wednesdays, 50 min):

• A2: 12:20pm – 1:10pm, CDS B62, (led by Zach) Note new location!!
• A3: 1:25pm – 2:15pm, IEC B10, (led by Zach)
• A4: 2:30pm – 3:20pm CGS 311, (led by Emir)
• A5: 3:35pm – 4:25pm CGS 315, (led by Emir)

B1 Lecture: Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays 12:20pm-1:10pm (WED 130)

Section B Discussions (Fridays, 50 min):

• B2: Tue 11:00am – 11:50 (listed 12:15pm), 111 Cummington St MCS B37 (led by Joey)
• B3: Tue 12:30pm – 1:20 (listed 1:45pm), 3 Cummington Mall PRB 148 (led by Joey)
• B4: Tue 2:00pm – 2:50pm (listed 3:15pm), 665 Comm Ave CDS 164
• B5: Tue 3:30pm – 4:20 (listed 4:45pm), 111 Cummington St MCS B31

Note: Discussion sections B4 and B5 are cancelled because of low enrollment. Please re-enroll in B2 or B3 if you were previously enrolled in B4 or B5.

Note: There are two sections of this course, they cover the same material and share a piazza and course staff but the discussion sections and grading portals are different. These are not interchangeable, you must attend the lecture and discussion sessions for your section!

Course Websites

• Piazza

  • Lecture Recordings
  • Announcements and additional information
  • Questions and discussions

• Course Notes (https://ds210-fa25-private.github.io/):

  • Syllabus (this document)
  • Interactive lecture notes

• Gradescope

  • Homework, project, project proposal submissions
  • Gradebook

• GitHub Classroom: URL TBD

Course Content Overview

• Part 1: Foundations (command line, git) & Rust Basics (Weeks 1-3)
• Part 2: Core Rust Concepts & Data Structures (Weeks 4-5)
• Midterm 1 (~Week 5)
• Part 3: Advanced Rust & Algorithms (Weeks 6-10)
• Midterm 2 (~Week 10)
• Part 4: Data Structures and Algorithms (~Weeks 11-12)
• Part 5: Data Science & Rust in Practice (~Weeks 13-14)
• Final exam during exam week

For a complete list of modules and topics that will be kept up-to-date as we go through the term, see Lecture Schedule (MWF) and Lecture Schedule (TTH).

Course Format

Lectures will involve extensive hands-on practice. Each class includes:

• Interactive presentations of new concepts
• Small-group exercises and problem-solving activities
• Discussion and Q&A

Because of this active format, regular attendance and participation is important and counts for a significant portion of your grade (15%).

Discussions will review lecture material, provide homework support, and will adapt over the semester to the needs of the class. We will not take attendance but our TAs make this a great resource!

Pre-work will be assigned before most lectures to prepare you for in-class activities. These typically include readings plus a short ungraded quiz. We will also periodically ask for feedback and reflections on the course between lectures.

Homeworks will be assigned roughly weekly at first, and there will be longer two-week assignments later, reflecting the growing complexity of the material.

Exams Two midterms and a cumulative final exam covering theory and short hand-coding problems (which we will practice in class!)

The course emphasizes learning through practice, with opportunities for corrections and growth after receiving feedback on assignments and exams.

Course Policies

Grading Calculations

Your grade will be determined as:

• 15% homeworks (~9 assignments)
• 20% midterm 1
• 20% midterm 2
• 25% final exam
• 15% in-class activities
• 5% pre-work and surveys

I will use the standard map from numeric grades to letter grades (>=93 is A, >=90 is A-, etc). For the midterm and final, we may add a fixed number of "free" points to everyone uniformly to effectively curve the exam at our discretion - this will never result in a lower grade for anyone.

We will use gradescope to track grades over the course of the semester, which you can verify at any time and use to compute your current grade in the course for yourself.

Homeworks

Homework assignments will be submitted by uploading them to GitHub Classroom. Since it may be possible to rely on genAI tools to do these assignments, against the course policy, our grading emphasizes development process and coding best practices in addition to technical correctness.

Typically, 1/3 of the homework score will be for correctness (computed by automated tests for coding assignments), 1/3 for documenting of your process (sufficient commit history and comments), and 1/3 for communication and best practices, which can be attained by replying to and incorporating feedback given by the CAs and TAs on your work.

Exams

The final will be during exam week, date and location TBD. The two midterms will be in class during normal lecture time.

If you have a valid conflict with a test date, you must tell me as soon as you are aware, and with a minimum of one week notice (unless there are extenuating  circumstances) so we can arrange a make-up test.

If you need accommodations for exams, schedule them with the Testing Center as soon as exam dates are firm. See below for more about accommodations.

Deadlines and late work

Homeworks will be due on the date specified in gradescope/github classroom.  

If your work is up to 48-hours late, you can still qualify for up to 80% credit for the assignment. After 48 hours, late work will not be accepted unless you have made prior arrangements due to extraordinary circumstances.

Collaboration

You are free to discuss problems and approaches with other students but must do your own writeup. If a significant portion of your solution is derived from someone else's work (your classmate, a website, a book, etc), you must cite that source in your writeup. You will not be penalized for using outside sources as long as you cite them appropriately.

You must also understand your solution well enough to be able to explain it if asked.

Academic honesty

You must adhere to BU's Academic Conduct Code at all times. Please be sure to read it here. In particular: cheating on an exam, passing off another student's work as your own, or plagiarism of writing or code are grounds for a grade reduction in the course and referral to BU's Academic Conduct Committee. If you have any questions about the policy, please send me a private Piazza note immediately, before taking an action that might be a violation.

AI use policy

You are allowed to use GenAI (e.g., ChatGPT, GitHub Copilot, etc) to help you understand concepts, debug your code, or generate ideas. You should understand that this may may help or impede your learning depending on how you use it.

If you use GenAI for an assignment, you must cite what you used and how you used it (for brainstorming, autocomplete, generating comments, fixing specific bugs, etc.). You must understand the solution well enough to explain it during a small group or discussion in class.

Your professor and TAs/CAs are happy to help you write and debug your own code during office hours, but we will not help you understand or debug code that generated by AI.

For more information see the CDS policy on GenAI.

Attendance and participation

Since a large component of your learning will come from in-class activities and discussions, attendance and participation are essential and account for 15% of your grade.

Attendance will be taken in lecture through Piazza polls which will open at various points during the lecture. Understanding that illness and conflicts arise, up to 4 absences are considered excused and will not affect your attendance grade.

In most lectures, there will be time for small-group exercises, either on paper or using github. To receive participation credit on these occasions, you must identify yourself on paper or in the repo along with a submission. These submissions will not be graded for accuracy, just for good-faith effort.

Occasionally, I may ask for volunteers, or I may call randomly upon students or groups to answer questions or present problems during class. You will be credited for participation.

Absences

This course follows BU's policy on religious observance. Otherwise, it is generally expected that students attend lectures and discussion sections. If you cannot attend classes for a while, please let me know as soon as possible. If you miss a lecture, please review the lecture notes and lecture recording. If I cannot teach in person, I will send a Piazza announcement with instructions.

Accommodations

If you need accommodations, let me know as soon as possible. You have the right to have your needs met, and the sooner you let me know, the sooner I can make arrangements to support you.

This course follows all BU policies regarding accommodations for students with documented disabilities. If you are a student with a disability or believe you might have a disability that requires accommodations, please contact the Office for Disability Services (ODS) at (617) 353-3658 or access@bu.edu to coordinate accommodation requests.

If you require accommodations for exams, please schedule that at the BU testing center as soon as the exam date is set.

Re-grading

You have the right to request a re-grade of any homework or test. All regrade requests must be submitted using the Gradescope interface. If you request a re-grade for a portion of an assignment, then we may review the entire assignment, not just the part in question. This may potentially result in a lower grade.

Corrections

You are welcome to submit corrections on homework assignments or the midterms. This is an opportunity to take the feedback you have received, reflect on it, and then demonstrate growth. Corrections involve submitting an updated version of the assignment or test alongside the following reflections:

• A clear explanation of the mistake
• What misconception(s) led to it
• An explanation of the correction
• What you now understand that you didn't before

After receiving grades back, you will have one week to submit corrections. You can only submit corrections on a good faith attempt at the initial submission (not to make up for a missed assignment).

Satisfying this criteria completely for any particular problem will earn you back 50% of the points you originally lost (no partial credit).

Oral re-exams (Section B only)

In Section B, we will provide you with a topic breakdown of your midterm exams into a few major topics. After receiving your midterm grade, you may choose to do an oral re-exam on one of the topics you struggled with by scheduling an appointment with Prof. Wheelock. This will involve a short (~10 minute) oral exam where you will be asked to explain concepts and write code on a whiteboard. This score will replace your original score on the topic, with a cap of 90% on that topic.

T-TH Lecture Schedule

Note: Schedule will be frequently updated. Check back often.

Note: Homeworks will be distributed via Gradescope and GitHub Classroom. We'll also post notices on Piazza.

See also Module Topics by Week below.

Lecture Schedule

Module Topics by Week

Module topics by week for the Tues-Thurs A1 Section.

Work in progress. Check back often.

• Course overview
• Why Rust
• Hello Shell
• Hello Git
• Hello Rust
• Prog Languages
• Guessing Game Part 1
• Systems
• Hello VSCode
• Vars, types
• cond expr
• Functions
• loops
• derive debug
• Tuples
• enums, match
• Stack, heap, vec
• datatype sizes
• Ownership and borrowing
• cloning and copying
• Slices
• strings
• error handling
• Best practices, formatting, comments

(Midterm 1 -- Systems, Basic Rust)

• Modules, crates, Rust projects, (58, 60, 62, 64)
• File IO, Error handling (64, 100)
• Structs, methods (30, 31, 38)
• Generics, traits (42, 44)
• Collections, vectors, lifetimes (46, 92)
• Iterators and closures (94, 96, 98)
• Hashmaps, hashsets (52)
• Tests (48)
• Complexity analysis (50)

(Midterm 2 -- Advanced Rust)

• Calling Rust from Python (920)
• SWE project management / project intro (new, 900)
• Linked lists, stacks, queues (66, 68, 70)
• Graph representation / graph algo (54, 56)
• Graph search, BFS, DFS, CC/SCC (72, 74, 76, 78) - maybe not from scratch
• Priority queues, binary heap, sorting (82, 84) - maybe not from scratch
• Shortest path / trees part 2 (86)
• Algorithms (108, 110, 112)
• Divide and conquer / merge sort (122)
• NDArray, survey of data science in Rust (114, 120)
• More data science
• Parallel code (126)

(Final Exam)

MWF Lecture, HW, and Exam Schedule

See the B1 Schedule for an up-to-date schedule for the MWF (B1) section

DS210 Course Overview

About This Module

This module introduces DS-210: Programming for Data Science, covering course logistics, academic policies, grading structure, and foundational concepts needed for the course.

Overview

This course builds on DS110 (Python for Data Science). That, or an equivalent is a prerequisite.

We will cover

• programming languages
• computing systems concepts
• shell commands

And then spend the bulk of the course learning Rust, a modern, high-performance and more secure programming language.

Time permitting we dive into some common data structures and data science related libraries.

New This Semester

We've made some significant changes to the course based on observations and course evaluations.

Question: What have you heard about the course? Is it easy? Hard?

Changes include:

1. Moving course notes from Jupyter notebooks to Rust mdbook
   • This is the same format used by the Rust language book
2. Addition of in-class group activites for almost every lecture where you can reinforce what you learned and practice for exams
   • Less lecture content, slowing down the pace
3. Homeworks that progressively build on the lecture material and better match exam questions (e.g. 10-15 line code solutions)
4. Elimination of course final project and bigger emphasis on in-class activities and participation.
5. ...

Teaching Staff and Contact Information

Section A Instructor: Thomas Gardos

• Email: tgardos@bu.edu
• Office hours: Tuesdays, 3:30-4:45pm @ CCDS 1623

Section B Instructor: Lauren Wheelock

• Email: laurenbw@bu.edu
• Office hours: Wednesday, 2:30-4:00pm @ CCDS 1506

Course Logistics

Lectures:

(A) Tue / Thu 2:00pm - 3:15pm, 765 Commonwealth Ave LAW AUD (B) Mon / Wed / Fri 12:20pm - 1:10pm, 2 Silber Way WED 130

Lectures and Discussions

A1 Lecture: Tuesdays, Thursdays 2:00pm-3:15pm (LAW AUD)

Section A Discussions (Wednesdays, 50 min): Led by TAs
A2: 12:20pm – 1:10pm, SAR 300, (Zach)
A3: 1:25pm – 2:15pm, IEC B10, (Zach)
A4: 2:30pm – 3:20pm CGS 311, (Emir)
A5: 3:35pm – 4:25pm CGS 315, (Emir)

B1 Lecture: Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays 12:20pm-1:10pm (WED 130)

Section B Discussions (Fridays, 50 min??): Led by TAs
(listed as 75 minutes for technical reasons but actually meet for 50)

• B2: Tue 11:00am – 10:50 (listed 12:15pm), 111 Cummington St MCS B37 (Joey)
• B3: Tue 12:30pm – 1:20 (listed 1:45pm), 3 Cummington Mall PRB 148 (Joey)
• B4: Tue 2:00pm – 2:50pm (listed 3:15pm), 665 Comm Ave CDS 164
• B5: Tue 3:30pm – 4:20 (listed 4:45pm), 111 Cummington St MCS B31

Note: Discussion sections B4 and B5 are cancelled because of low enrollment. Please re-enroll in B2 or B3 if you were previously enrolled in B4 or B5.

Course Websites

See welcome email for Piazza and Gradescope URLs.

• Piazza:

  • Lecture Notes
  • Announcements and additional information
  • Questions and discussions

• Gradescope:

  • Homework
  • Gradebook

• GitHub Classroom: URL TBD

Course objectives

This course teaches systems programming and data structures through Rust, emphasizing safety, speed, and concurrency. By the end, you will:

• Master key data structures and algorithms for CS and data science
• Understand memory management, ownership, and performance optimization
• Apply computational thinking to real problems using graphs and data science
• Develop Rust skills that transfer to other languages

Why are we learning Rust?

• Learning a second programming language builds CS fundamentals and teaches you to acquire new languages throughout your career
• Systems programming knowledge helps you understand software-hardware interaction and write efficient, low-level code

We're using Rust specifically because:

• Memory safety without garbage collection lets you see how data structures work in memory (without C/C++ headaches)
• Strong type system catches errors at compile time, helping you write correct code upfront
• Growing adoption in data science and scientific computing across major companies and agencies

More shortly.

Course Timeline and Milestones

• Part 1: Foundations (command line, git) & Rust Basics (Weeks 1-3)
• Part 2: Core Rust Concepts & Data Structures (Weeks 4-5)
• Midterm 1 (~Week 5)
• Part 3: Advanced Rust & Algorithms (Weeks 6-10)
• Midterm 2 (~Week 10)
• Part 4: Data Structures and Algorithms (~Weeks 11-12)
• Part 5: Data Science & Rust in Practice (~Weeks 13-14)
• Final exam during exam week

Course Format

Lectures will involve extensive hands-on practice. Each class includes:

• Interactive presentations of new concepts
• Small-group exercises and problem-solving activities
• Discussion and Q&A

Because of this active format, regular attendance and participation is important and counts for a significant portion of your grade (15%).

Discussions will review and reinforce lecture material through and provide further opportunities for hands-on practice.

Pre-work will be assigned before most lectures to prepare you for in-class activities. These typically include readings plus a short ungraded quiz. The quizz questions will reappear in the lecture for participation credit.

Homeworks will be assigned roughly weekly before the midterm, and there will be 2-3 longer two-week assigments after the deadline, reflecting the growing complexity of the material.

Exams 2 midterms and a cumulative final exam covering theory and short hand-coding problems (which we will practice in class!)

The course emphasizes learning through practice, with opportunities for corrections and growth after receiving feedback on assignments and exams.

In-class Activities

Syllabus Review Activity (20 min)

In groups of 2-3, review the course syllabus and answer the following questions:

Concrete:

0. Add your names to a shared worksheet
1. How are assignments and projects submitted?
2. What happens if you submit work a day late?
3. If you get stuck on an assignment and your friend explains how to do it, what should you do?
4. What would it take to get full credit for attendance and participation?
5. If you have accomodations for exams, how soon should you request them?
6. When and how long are discussion sections?

Open-ended:

1. What parts of the course policies seem standard and what parts seem unique?
2. Identify 2-3 things in the syllabus that concern you
3. What strategies could you use to address these concerns?
4. Identify 2-3 things you're glad to see
5. When do you plan to submit your first assignment / project? What do you think it will cover?
6. List three questions about the course that aren't answered in the syllabus

AI use discussion (20 min)

Think-pair-share style, each ~6-7 minutes, with wrap-up.

See Gradescope assignment. Forms teams of 3.

Round 1: Learning Impact

"How might GenAI tools help your learning in this course? How might they get in the way?"

Round 2: Values & Fairness

"What expectations do you have for how other students in this course will or won't use GenAI? What expectations do you have for the teaching team so we can assess your learning fairly given easy access to these tools?"

Round 3: Real Decisions

"Picture yourself stuck on a challenging Rust problem at midnight with a deadline looming. What options do you have? What would help you make decisions you'd feel good about?"

More course policies

See syllabus for more information on:

• deadlines and late work
• collaboration
• academic honesty
• AI use policy (discussed below)
• Attendance and participation
• Absences
• Accommodations
• Regrading
• Corrections

AI use policy

You are allowed to use GenAI (e.g., ChatGPT, GitHub Copilot, etc) to help you understand concepts, debug your code, or generate ideas.

You should understand that this may may help or impede your learning depending on how you use it.

If you use GenAI for an assignment, you must cite what you used and how you used it (for brainstorming, autocomplete, generating comments, fixing specific bugs, etc.).

You must understand the solution well enough to explain it during a small group or discussion in class.

Your professor and TAs/CAs are happy to help you write and debug your own code during office hours, but we will not help you understand or debug code that is generated by AI.

For more information see the CDS policy on GenAI.

Intro surveys

Please fill out the intro survey posted on Gradescope.

Why Rust?

Why Systems Programming Languages Matter

Importance of Systems Languages:

• Essential for building operating systems, databases, and infrastructure
• Provide fine-grained control over system resources
• Enable optimization for performance-critical applications
• Foundation for higher-level languages and frameworks

Performance Advantages:

• Generally compiled languages like Rust are needed to scale to large, efficient deployments
• Can be 10x to 100x faster than equivalent Python code
• Better memory management and resource utilization
• Reduced runtime overhead compared to interpreted languages

Memory Safety: A Critical Advantage

What is Memory Safety?

Memory safety prevents common programming errors that can lead to security vulnerabilities:

• Buffer overflows
• Use-after-free errors
• Memory leaks
• Null pointer dereferences

Industry Recognition:

Major technology companies and government agencies are actively moving to memory-safe languages:

• Google, Microsoft, Meta have efforts underway to move infrastructure code from C/C++ to Rust
• U.S. Government agencies recommend memory-safe languages for critical infrastructure
• DARPA has programs focused on translating C to Rust
• CISA (Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency) advocates for memory-safe roadmaps

Whitehouse Press Release

Darpa Program

CISA -- The case for memory safe roadmaps CISA -- Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency

Programming Paradigms: Interpreted vs. Compiled

Interpreted Languages (e.g., Python):

Advantages:

• Interactive development environment
• Quick iteration and testing
• Rich ecosystem for data science (Jupyter, numpy, pandas)
• Easy to learn and prototype with

Compiled Languages (e.g., Rust):

Advantages:

• Superior performance and efficiency
• Early error detection at compile time
• Optimized machine code generation
• Better for production systems

Development Process:

1. Write a program
2. Compile it (catch errors early)
3. Run and debug optimized code
4. Deploy efficient executables

Using Rust in a Jupyter Notebook

The project EvCxR (Evaluation Context for Rust) creates a Rust kernel that you can use in Jupyter notebooks.

• Can be helpful for interactive learning
• There are some quirks when creating Rust code cells in a notebook
  • Variables and functions are kept in global state
  • Order of cell execution matters!
• Previous versions of the course notes used this format

We use Rust mdbook with code cells that get executed on the Rust playground.

Same format that the Rust language book is written.

Technical Coding Interviews

And finally...

If you are considering technical coding interviews, they sometimes ask you to solve problems in a language other than python.

Many of the in-class activities and early homework questions will be Leetcode/HackerRank style challenges.

This is good practice!

Hello Shell!

About This Module

This module introduces you to the command-line interface and essential shell commands that form the foundation of systems programming and software development. You'll learn to navigate the file system, manipulate files, and use the terminal effectively for Rust development.

Prework Readings

Review this module.

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. What advantages might a command-line interface offer over graphical interfaces? What types of tasks seem well-suited for command-line automation?
2. How does the terminal relate to the development workflow you've seen in other programming courses?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Create, copy, move, and delete files and directories at the command line
• Understand file permissions and ownership concepts
• Use pipes and redirection for basic text processing
• Set up an organized directory structure for programming projects
• Feel comfortable working in the terminal environment

Why the Command Line Matters

For Programming and Data Science:

# Quick file operations
ls *.rs                    # Find all Rust files
grep "TODO" src/*.rs       # Search for TODO comments across files
wc -l data/*.csv          # Count lines in all CSV files

Advantages over GUI:

• Speed: Much faster for repetitive tasks
• Precision: Exact control over file operations
• Automation: Commands can be scripted and repeated
• Remote work: Essential for server management
• Development workflow: Many programming tools use command-line interfaces

File Systems

File System Structure Essentials

A lot of DS and AI infrastructure runs on Linux/Unix type filesystems.

Root Directory (/):

The slash character represents the root of the entire file system.

Directory Conventions

• /: The slash character by itself is the root of the filesystem
• /bin: A place containing programs that you can run
• /boot: A place containing the kernel and other pieces that allow your computer to start
• /dev: A place containing special files representing all your devices
• /etc: A place with lots of configuration information (i.e. login and password data)
• /home: All user's home directories
• /lib: A place for all system libraries
• /mnt: A place to mount external file systems
• /opt: A place to install user software
• /proc: Lots of information about your computer and what is running on it
• /sbin: Similar to bin but for the superuser
• /usr: Honestly a mishmash of things and rather overlapping with other directories
• /tmp: A place for temporary files that will be wiped out on a reboot
• /var: A place where many programs write files to maintain state

Key Directories You'll Use:

/                          # Root of entire system
├── home/                  # User home directories
│   └── username/          # Your personal space
├── usr/                   # User programs and libraries
│   ├── bin/              # User programs (like cargo, rustc)
│   └── local/            # Locally installed software
└── tmp/                  # Temporary files

Navigation Shortcuts:

• ~ = Your home directory
• . = Current directory
• .. = Parent directory
• / = Root directory

To explore further

You can read more about the Unix filesystem at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_filesystem.

The Linux shell

It is an environment for finding files, executing programs, manipulating (create, edit, delete) files and easily stitching multiple commands together to do something more complex.

Windows and MacOS has command shells, but Windows is not fully compatible, however MacOS command shell is.

Windows Subystem for Linux is fully compatible.

In Class Activity Part 1: Access/Install Terminal Shell

Directions for MacOS Users and Windows Users.

macOS Users:

Your Mac already has a terminal! Here's how to access it:

1. Open Terminal:

   • Press Cmd + Space to open Spotlight
   • Type "Terminal" and press Enter
   • Or: Applications → Utilities → Terminal

2. Check Your Shell:

   echo $SHELL
   # Modern Macs use zsh, older ones use bash
   

3. Optional: Install Better Tools:

Install Homebrew (package manager for macOS)

/bin/bash -c "$(curl -fsSL https://raw.githubusercontent.com/Homebrew/install/HEAD/install.sh)"

Install useful tools

brew install tree      # Visual directory structure

brew install ripgrep   # Fast text search

Windows Users:

Windows has several terminal options. For this exercise we recommend Option 1, Git bash.

When you have more time, you might want to explore Windows Subsystem for Linux so you can have a full, compliant linux system accessible on Windows.

PowerShell aliases some commands to be Linux-like, but they are fairly quirky.

We recommend Git Bash or WSL:

1. Option A: Git Bash (Easier)

   • Download Git for Windows from git-scm.com
   • During installation, select "Use Git and optional Unix tools from the Command Prompt"
   • Open "Git Bash" from Start menu
   • This gives you Unix-like commands on Windows

2. Option B: Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL)

   # Run PowerShell as Administrator, then:
   wsl --install
   # Restart your computer
   # Open "Ubuntu" from Start menu
   

3. Option C: PowerShell (Built-in)

   • Press Win + X and select "PowerShell"
   • Note: Commands differ from Unix (use dir instead of ls, etc.)
   • Not recommended for the in-class activities.

Verify Your Setup (Both Platforms)

pwd              # Should show your current directory
ls               # Should list files (macOS/Linux) or use 'dir' (PowerShell)
which ls         # Should show path to ls command (if available)
echo "Hello!"    # Should print Hello!

Essential Commands for Daily Use

Navigation and Exploration:

pwd                        # Show current directory path
ls                        # List files in current directory
ls -al                    # List files with details and hidden files
cd directory_name         # Change to directory
cd ..                     # Go up one directory
cd ~                      # Go to home directory

Creating and Organizing:

mkdir project_name        # Create directory
mkdir -p path/to/dir      # Create nested directories
touch filename.txt        # Create empty file
cp file.txt backup.txt    # Copy file
mv old_name new_name      # Rename/move file
rm filename               # Delete file
rm -r directory_name      # Delete directory and contents
rm -rf directory_name     # Delete dir and contents without confirmation

Viewing File Contents:

cat filename.txt          # Display entire file
head filename.txt         # Show first 10 lines
tail filename.txt         # Show last 10 lines
less filename.txt         # View file page by page (press q to quit)

File Permissions Made Simple

Understanding ls -l Output:

-rw-r--r-- 1 user group 1024 Jan 15 10:30 filename.txt
drwxr-xr-x 2 user group 4096 Jan 15 10:25 dirname

Permission Breakdown:

• First character: - (file) or d (directory)
• Next 9 characters in groups of 3:
  • Owner permissions (rwx): read, write, execute
  • Group permissions (r-x): read, no write, execute
  • Others permissions (r--): read only

We will see these kinds of permissions again in Rust programming!

Common Permission Patterns:

• 644 or rw-r--r--: Files you can edit, others can read
• 755 or rwxr-xr-x: Programs you can run, others can read/run
• 600 or rw-------: Private files only you can access

Pipes and Redirection Basics

Saving Output to Files:

ls > file_list.txt        # Save directory listing to file
echo "Hello World" > notes.txt  # Overwrite file contents
echo "It is me" >> notes.text   # Append to file content

Combining Commands with Pipes:

ls | grep ".txt"          # List only .txt files
cat file.txt | head -5    # Show first 5 lines of file
ls -l | wc -l            # Count number of files in directory

Practical Examples:

# Find large files
ls -la | sort -k5 -nr | head -10

# Count total lines in all text files
cat *.txt | wc -l

# Search for pattern and save results
grep "error" log.txt > errors.txt

Setting Up for Programming

Creating Project Structure:

# Create organized development directory
# The '-p' means make intermediate directories as required
mkdir -p ~/development/rust_projects
mkdir -p ~/development/data_science
mkdir -p ~/development/tools

# Navigate to project area
cd ~/development/rust_projects

# Create specific project
mkdir my_first_rust_project
cd my_first_rust_project

Customizing Your Shell Profile (Optional)

Understanding Shell Configuration Files:

Your shell reads a configuration file when it starts up. This is where you can add aliases, modify your PATH, and customize your environment.

Common Configuration Files:

• macOS (zsh): ~/.zshrc
• macOS (bash): ~/.bash_profile or ~/.bashrc
• Linux (bash): ~/.bashrc
• Windows Git Bash: ~/.bash_profile

Finding Your Configuration File:

It's in your Home directory.

# Check which shell you're using (MacOS/Linus)
echo $SHELL

# macOS with zsh
echo $HOME/.zshrc

# macOS/Linux with bash
echo $HOME/.bash_profile
echo $HOME/.bashrc

Adding Useful Aliases:

# Edit your shell configuration file (choose the right one for your system)
nano ~/.zshrc        # macOS zsh
nano ~/.bash_profile # macOS bash or Git Bash
nano ~/.bashrc       # Linux bash

# Add these helpful aliases:
alias ll='ls -la'
alias ..='cd ..'
alias ...='cd ../..'
alias projects='cd ~/development'
alias rust-projects='cd ~/development/rust_projects'
alias grep='grep --color=auto'
alias tree='tree -C'

# Custom functions
# This will make a directory specified as the argument and change into it
mkcd() {
    mkdir -p "$1" && cd "$1"
}

Modifying Your PATH:

# Add to your shell configuration file
export PATH="$HOME/bin:$PATH"
export PATH="$HOME/.cargo/bin:$PATH"    # For Rust tools (we'll add this later)

# For development tools
export PATH="/usr/local/bin:$PATH"

Applying Changes:

# Method 1: Reload your shell configuration
source ~/.zshrc        # For zsh
source ~/.bash_profile # For bash

# Method 2: Start a new terminal session
# Method 3: Run the command directly
exec $SHELL

Useful Environment Variables:

# Add to your shell configuration file
export EDITOR=nano           # Set default text editor
export HISTSIZE=10000       # Remember more commands
export HISTFILESIZE=20000   # Store more history

# Color support for ls
export CLICOLOR=1           # macOS
export LS_COLORS='di=34:ln=35:so=32:pi=33:ex=31:bd=34:cd=34:su=0:sg=0:tw=34:ow=34' # Linux

Shell Configuration with Git Branch Name

A useful shell configuration is modify the shell command prompt to show your current working directory and your git branch name if you are in a git project.

See DS549 Shell Configuraiton for instructions.

Shell scripts

A way to write simple programs using the linux commands and some control flow elements. Good for small things. Never write anything complicated using shell.

Shell Script File

Shell script files typically use the extension *.sh, e.g. script.sh.

Shell script files start with a shebang line, #!/bin/bash.

#!/bin/bash

echo "Hello world!"

To execute shell script you can use the command:

source script.sh

Hint: You can use the nano text editor to edit simple files like this.

In-Class Activity: Shell Challenge

Prerequisite: You should have completed Part I above to have access to a Linux or MacOS style shell.

Part 2: Scavenger Hunt

Complete the steps using only the command line!

You can use echo to write to the file, or text editor nano.

Feel free to reference the cheat sheet below and the notes above.

1. Create a directory called treasure_hunt in your course projects folder.

2. In that directory create a file called command_line_scavenger_hunt.txt that contains the following:

   • Your name / group members

3. Run these lines and record the output into that .txt file:

whoami                    # What's your username?
hostname                  # What's your computer's name?
pwd                      # Where do you start?
echo $HOME               # What's your home directory path?

4. Inside that directory, create a text file named clue_1.txt with the content "The treasure is hidden in plain sight"

5. Create a subdirectory called secret_chamber

6. In the secret_chamber directory, create a file called clue_2.txt with the content "Look for a hidden file"

7. Create a hidden file in the secret_chamber directory called .treasure_map.txt with the content "Congratulations. You found the treasure"

8. When you're done, change to the parent directory of treasure_hunt and run the command zip -r treasure_hunt.zip treasure_hunt.

   • Or if you are on Git Bash, you may have to use the command tar.exe -a -c -f treasure_hunt.zip treasure_hunt

9. Upload treasure_hunt.zip to gradescope - next time we will introduce git and github and use that platform going forward.

10. Optional: For Bragging Rights Create a shell script that does all of the above commands and upload that to Gradescope as well.

Command Line Cheat Sheet

Basic Navigation & Listing

Mac/Linux (Bash/Zsh):

# Navigate directories
cd ~                    # Go to home directory
cd /path/to/directory   # Go to specific directory
pwd                     # Show current directory

# List files and directories
ls                      # List files
ls -la                  # List all files (including hidden) with details
ls -lh                  # List with human-readable file sizes
ls -t                   # List sorted by modification time

Windows (PowerShell/Command Prompt):

# Navigate directories
cd ~                    # Go to home directory (PowerShell)
cd %USERPROFILE%        # Go to home directory (Command Prompt)
cd C:\path\to\directory # Go to specific directory
pwd                     # Show current directory (PowerShell)
cd                      # Show current directory (Command Prompt)

# List files and directories
ls                      # List files (PowerShell)
dir                     # List files (Command Prompt)
dir /a                  # List all files including hidden
Get-ChildItem -Force    # List all files including hidden (PowerShell)

Finding Files

Mac/Linux:

# Find files by name
find /home -name "*.pdf"           # Find all PDF files in /home
find . -type f -name "*.log"       # Find log files in current directory
find /usr -type l                  # Find symbolic links

# Find files by other criteria
find . -type f -size +1M           # Find files larger than 1MB
find . -mtime -7                   # Find files modified in last 7 days
find . -maxdepth 3 -type d         # Find directories up to 3 levels deep

Windows:

# PowerShell - Find files by name
Get-ChildItem -Path C:\Users -Filter "*.pdf" -Recurse
Get-ChildItem -Path . -Filter "*.log" -Recurse
dir *.pdf /s                       # Command Prompt - recursive search

# Find files by other criteria
Get-ChildItem -Recurse | Where-Object {$_.Length -gt 1MB}  # Files > 1MB
Get-ChildItem -Recurse | Where-Object {$_.LastWriteTime -gt (Get-Date).AddDays(-7)}  # Last 7 days

Counting & Statistics

Mac/Linux:

# Count files
find . -name "*.pdf" | wc -l       # Count PDF files
ls -1 | wc -l                      # Count items in current directory

# File and directory sizes
du -sh ~/Documents                 # Total size of Documents directory
du -h --max-depth=1 /usr | sort -rh  # Size of subdirectories, largest first
ls -lah                            # List files with sizes

Windows:

# Count files (PowerShell)
(Get-ChildItem -Filter "*.pdf" -Recurse).Count
(Get-ChildItem).Count              # Count items in current directory

# File and directory sizes
Get-ChildItem -Recurse | Measure-Object -Property Length -Sum  # Total size
dir | sort length -desc            # Sort by size (Command Prompt)

Text Processing & Search

Mac/Linux:

# Search within files
grep -r "error" /var/log           # Search for "error" recursively
grep -c "hello" file.txt           # Count occurrences of "hello"
grep -n "pattern" file.txt         # Show line numbers with matches

# Count lines, words, characters
wc -l file.txt                     # Count lines
wc -w file.txt                     # Count words
cat file.txt | grep "the" | wc -l  # Count lines containing "the"

Windows:

# Search within files (PowerShell)
Select-String -Path "C:\logs\*" -Pattern "error" -Recurse
(Select-String -Path "file.txt" -Pattern "hello").Count
Get-Content file.txt | Select-String -Pattern "the" | Measure-Object

# Command Prompt
findstr /s "error" C:\logs\*       # Search for "error" recursively
find /c "the" file.txt             # Count occurrences of "the"

System Information

Mac/Linux:

# System stats
df -h                              # Disk space usage
free -h                            # Memory usage (Linux)
system_profiler SPHardwareDataType # Hardware info (Mac)
uptime                             # System uptime
who                                # Currently logged in users

# Process information
ps aux                             # List all processes
ps aux | grep chrome               # Find processes containing "chrome"
ps aux | wc -l                     # Count total processes

Windows:

# System stats (PowerShell)
Get-WmiObject -Class Win32_LogicalDisk | Select-Object Size,FreeSpace
Get-WmiObject -Class Win32_ComputerSystem | Select-Object TotalPhysicalMemory
(Get-Date) - (Get-CimInstance Win32_OperatingSystem).LastBootUpTime  # Uptime
Get-LocalUser                      # User accounts

# Process information
Get-Process                        # List all processes
Get-Process | Where-Object {$_.Name -like "*chrome*"}  # Find chrome processes
(Get-Process).Count                # Count total processes

# Command Prompt alternatives
wmic logicaldisk get size,freespace  # Disk space
tasklist                           # List processes
tasklist | find "chrome"           # Find chrome processes

File Permissions & Properties

Mac/Linux:

# File permissions and details
ls -l filename                     # Detailed file information
stat filename                     # Comprehensive file statistics
file filename                     # Determine file type

# Find files by permissions
find . -type f -readable           # Find readable files
find . -type f ! -executable       # Find non-executable files

Windows:

# File details (PowerShell)
Get-ItemProperty filename          # Detailed file information
Get-Acl filename                   # File permissions
dir filename                       # Basic file info (Command Prompt)

# File attributes
Get-ChildItem | Where-Object {$_.Attributes -match "ReadOnly"}  # Read-only files

Network & Hardware

Mac/Linux:

# Network information
ip addr show                       # Show network interfaces (Linux)
ifconfig                          # Network interfaces (Mac/older Linux)
networksetup -listallhardwareports # Network interfaces (Mac)
cat /proc/cpuinfo                 # CPU information (Linux)
system_profiler SPHardwareDataType # Hardware info (Mac)

Windows:

# Network information (PowerShell)
Get-NetAdapter                     # Network interfaces
ipconfig                          # IP configuration (Command Prompt)
Get-WmiObject Win32_Processor      # CPU information
Get-ComputerInfo                   # Comprehensive system info

Platform-Specific Tips

Mac/Linux Users:

• Your home directory is ~ or $HOME
• Hidden files start with a dot (.)
• Use man command for detailed help
• Try which command to find where a command is located

Windows Users:

• Your home directory is %USERPROFILE% (Command Prompt) or $env:USERPROFILE (PowerShell)
• Hidden files have the hidden attribute (use dir /ah to see them)
• Use Get-Help command in PowerShell or help command in Command Prompt for detailed help
• Try where command to find where a command is located

Universal Tips:

• Use Tab completion to avoid typing long paths
• Most shells support command history (up arrow or Ctrl+R)
• Combine commands with pipes (|) to chain operations
• Search online for "[command name] [your OS]" for specific examples

Hello Git!

About This Module

This module introduces version control concepts and Git fundamentals for individual development workflow. You'll learn to track changes, create repositories, and use GitHub for backup and sharing. This foundation prepares you for collaborative programming and professional development practices.

Prework

Read through this module.

If you're on Windows, install git from https://git-scm.com/downloads. You probably already did this to use git-bash for the Shell class activity.

MacOS comes pre-installed with git.

From your Home or projects directory in a terminal or cmd, run the command:

git clone https://github.com/cdsds210/simple-repo.git

If it is the first time, it may ask you to login or authenticate.

Ultimately, you want to cache your GitHub credentials locally on your computer. This page gives instructions.

Optionally you can browse through these Git references:

• Git Handbook - Getting Started - Core concepts overview
• Pro Git Chapter 1: Getting Started - Version control basics
• GitHub Hello World Guide - GitHub workflow
• Review: Git Commands Cheat Sheet

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. Why is version control essential for any programming project?
2. How does Git differ from simply making backup copies of files?
3. What problems arise when multiple people work on the same code without version control?
4. How might Git help you track your learning progress in this course?
5. What's the difference between Git (the tool) and GitHub (the service)?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Understand why version control is critical for programming
• Configure Git for first-time use
• Create repositories and make meaningful commits
• Connect local repositories to GitHub
• Use the basic Git workflow for individual projects
• Recover from common Git mistakes

You may want to follow along with the git commands in your own environment during the lecture.

Why Version Control Matters

The Problem Without Git:

my_project.rs
my_project_backup.rs
my_project_final.rs
my_project_final_REALLY_FINAL.rs
my_project_broken_trying_to_fix.rs
my_project_working_maybe.rs

The Solution With Git:

git log --oneline
a1b2c3d Fix input validation bug
e4f5g6h Add error handling for file operations
h7i8j9k Implement basic calculator functions
k1l2m3n Initial project setup

Key Benefits:

• Never lose work: Complete history of all changes
• Fearless experimentation: Try new ideas without breaking working code
• Clear progress tracking: See exactly what changed and when
• Professional workflow: Essential skill for any programming job
• Backup and sharing: Store code safely in the cloud

Core Git Concepts

Repository (Repo): A folder tracked by Git, containing your project and its complete history.

Commit: A snapshot of your project at a specific moment, with a message explaining what changed.

The Three States:

1. Working Directory: Files you're currently editing
2. Staging Area: Changes prepared for next commit
3. Repository: Committed snapshots stored permanently

The Basic Workflow:

Edit files → Stage changes → Commit snapshot
     (add)      (commit)

Push: Uploads your local commits to a remote repository (like GitHub). Takes your local changes and shares them with others.

Local commits → Push → Remote repository

Pull: Downloads commits from a remote repository and merges them into your current branch. Gets the latest changes from others.

Remote repository → Pull → Local repository (updated)

Merge: Combines changes from different branches. Takes commits from one branch and integrates them into another branch.

Feature branch + Main branch → Merge → Combined history

Pull Request (PR): A request to merge your changes into another branch, typically used for code review. You "request" that someone "pull" your changes into the main codebase.

Your branch → Pull Request → Review → Merge into main branch

Git Branching

Lightweight Branching:

Git's key strength is efficient branching and merging:

• Main branch: Usually called main (or master in older repos)
• Feature branches: Created for new features or bug fixes

Branching Benefits:

• Isolate experimental work
• Enable parallel development
• Facilitate code review process
• Support different release versions

Essential Git Commands

Here are some more of those useful shell commands!

One-Time Setup

# Configure your identity (use your real name and email)
git config --global user.name "Your Full Name"
git config --global user.email "your.email@example.com"

If you don't want to publish your email in all your commits on GitHub, then highly recommended to get a "no-reply" email address from GitHub. Here are directions.

# Set default branch name
git config --global init.defaultBranch main

Note: The community has moved away from master as the default branch name, but it may still be default in some installations.

# Verify configuration
git config --list

Starting a New Project

# Create project directory
mkdir my_rust_project
cd my_rust_project

# Initialize Git repository
git init

# Check status
git status

Daily Git Workflow (without GithHub)

# Create a descriptive branch name for the change you want to make
git checkout -b topic_branch

# Check what's changed
git status                    # See current state
git diff                      # See specific changes

# make edits to, for example filename.rs

# Stage changes for commit
git add filename.rs          # Add specific file
git add .                    # Add all changes in current directory

# Create commit with a comment
git commit -m "Add calculator function"

# View history
git log                      # Full commit history
git log --oneline           # Compact view

# View branches
git branch

# Switch back to main
git checkout main

# Merge topic branch back into main
git merge topic_branch

# Delete the topic branch when finished
git branch -d topic_branch

Writing Good Commit Messages

The Golden Rule: Your commit message should complete this sentence: "If applied, this commit will [your message here]"

Good Examples:

git commit -m "Add input validation for calculator"
git commit -m "Fix division by zero error"
git commit -m "Refactor string parsing for clarity"
git commit -m "Add tests for edge cases"

Bad Examples:

git commit -m "stuff"           # Too vague
git commit -m "fixed it"        # What did you fix?
git commit -m "more changes"    # Not helpful
git commit -m "asdfjkl"        # Meaningless

Commit Message Guidelines:

1. Start with a verb: Add, Fix, Update, Remove, Refactor
2. Be specific: What exactly did you change?
3. Keep it under 50 characters for the first line
4. Use present tense: "Add function" not "Added function"

Working with GitHub

Why GitHub?

• Remote backup: Your code is safe in the cloud
• Easy sharing: Share projects with instructors and peers
• Portfolio building: Showcase your work to employers
• Collaboration: Essential for team projects

Connecting to GitHub:

# Create repository on GitHub first (via web interface)
# Then connect your local repository:

git remote add origin https://github.com/yourusername/repository-name.git
git branch -M main
git push -u origin main

Note: The above instructions are provided to you by GitHub when you create an empty repository.

Git Remote Server (GitHub) Related Command

# Check remote connection
git remote -v

# Clone existing repository
git clone https://github.com/username/repository.git
cd repository

# Pull any changes from GitHub
git pull

# Push your commits to GitHub
git push

Daily GitHub Workflow

# Create a descriptive branch name for the change you want to make
git checkout -b topic_branch

# Check what's changed
git status                    # See current state
git diff                      # See specific changes

# make edits to, for example filename.rs

# Stage changes for commit
git add filename.rs          # Add specific file
git add .                    # Add all changes in current directory

# Create commit with a comment
git commit -m "Add calculator function"

# View history
git log                      # Full commit history
git log --oneline           # Compact view

# View branches
git branch

# Run local validation tests on changes

# Push to GitHub
git push origin topic_branch

# Create a Pull Request on GitHub

# Repeat above to make any changes from PR review comments

# When done, merge PR to main on GitHub

git checkout main

git pull

# Delete the topic branch when finished
git branch -d topic_branch

Git for Homework

Recommended Workflow:

# Start new assignment
cd ~/ds210/assignments
mkdir assignment_01
cd assignment_01
git init

# Make initial commit
touch README.md
echo "# Assignment 1" > README.md
git add README.md
git commit -m "Initial project setup for Assignment 1"

# Work and commit frequently
# ... write some code ...
git add src/main.rs
git commit -m "Implement basic data structure"

# ... write more code ...
git add src/main.rs
git commit -m "Add error handling"

# ... add tests ...
git add tests/
git commit -m "Add comprehensive tests"

# Final commit before submission
git add .
git commit -m "Final submission version"

Best Practices for This Course:

• Commit early and often: We expect to see a minimum of 3-5 commits per assignment
• One logical change per commit: Each commit should make sense on its own
• Meaningful progression: Your commit history should tell the story of your solution
• Clean final version: Make sure your final commit has working, clean code

Common Git Scenarios

"I made a mistake in my last commit message"

git commit --amend -m "Corrected commit message"

"I forgot to add a file to my last commit"

git add forgotten_file.rs
git commit --amend --no-edit

"I want to undo changes I haven't committed yet"

git checkout -- filename.rs    # Undo changes to specific file
git reset --hard HEAD          # Undo ALL uncommitted changes (CAREFUL!)

"I want to see what changed in a specific commit"

git show commit_hash           # Show specific commit
git log --patch               # Show all commits with changes

Understanding .gitignore

What NOT to Track: Some files should never be committed to Git:

# Rust build artifacts
/target/
Cargo.lock    # Ignore for libraries, not applications

# IDE files
.vscode/settings.json
.idea/
*.swp

# OS files
.DS_Store
Thumbs.db

# Personal notes
notes.txt
TODO.md

Creating .gitignore:

# Create .gitignore file
touch .gitignore
# Edit with your preferred editor to add patterns above

# Commit the .gitignore file
git add .gitignore
git commit -m "Add .gitignore for Rust project"

Resources for learning more and practicing

• A gamified tutorial for the basics: https://ohmygit.org/
• Interactive online Git tutorial that goes a bit deper: https://learngitbranching.js.org/
• A downloadable app with tutorials and challenges: https://github.com/jlord/git-it-electron
• Another good tutorial (examples in ruby): https://gitimmersion.com/
• Pro Git book (free online): https://git-scm.com/book/en/v2

GitHub Collaboration Challenge

Form teams of three people.

Follow these instructions with your teammates to practice creating a GitHub repository, branching, pull requests (PRs), review, and merging. Work in groups of three—each person will create and review a pull request.

1. Create and clone the repository (≈3 min)

1. Choose one teammate to act as the repository lead.
   • They should log in to GitHub, click the “+” menu in the upper‑right and select New repository.
   • Call the repository "github-class-challenge", optionally add a description, make the visibility public, check “Add a README,” and
   • click Create repository.
   • Go to Settings/Collaborators and add your teammates as developers with write access.
2. Each team member needs a local copy of the repository. On the repo’s main page, click Code, copy the HTTPS URL, open a terminal, navigate to the folder where you want the project, and run:

git clone <repo‑URL>

Cloning creates a full local copy of all files and history.

2. Create your own topic branch (≈2 min)

A topic branch lets you make changes without affecting the default main branch. GitHub recommends using a topic branch when making a pull request.

On your local machine:

git checkout -b <your‑first‑name>-topic
git push -u origin <your‑first‑name>-topic  # creates the branch on GitHub

Pick a branch name based on your first name (for example alex-topic).

3. Add a personal file, commit and push (≈5 min)

1. In your cloned repository (on your topic branch), create a new text file named after yourself—e.g., alex.txt. Write a few sentences about yourself (major, hometown, a fun fact).

2. Stage and commit the file:

   git add alex.txt
   git commit -m "Add personal bio"
   

   Good commit messages explain what changed.

3. Push your commit to GitHub:

   git push
   

4. Create a pull request (PR) for your teammates to review (≈3 min)

1. On GitHub, click Pull requests → New pull request.
2. Set the base branch to main and the compare branch to your topic branch.
3. Provide a clear title (e.g. “Add Alex’s bio”) and a short description of what you added. Creating a pull request lets your collaborators review and discuss your changes before merging them.
4. Request reviews from your two teammates.

5. Review your teammates’ pull requests (≈4 min)

1. Open each of your teammates’ PRs.
2. On the Conversation or Files changed tab, leave at least one constructive comment (ask a question or suggest something you’d like them to add). You can comment on a specific line or leave a general comment.
3. Submit your review with the Comment option. Pull request reviews can be comments, approvals, or requests for changes; you’re only commenting at this stage.

6. Address feedback by making another commit (≈3 min)

1. Read the comments on your PR. Edit your text file locally in response to the feedback.

2. Stage, commit, and push the changes:

   git add alex.txt
   git commit -m "Address feedback"
   git push
   

   Any new commits you push will automatically update the open pull request.

3. Reply to the reviewer’s comment in the PR, explaining how you addressed their feedback.

7. Approve and merge pull requests (≈3 min)

1. After each PR author has addressed the comments, revisit the PRs you reviewed.
   • Click Review changes → Approve to approve the updated PR.
2. Once a PR has at least one approval, a teammate other than the author should merge it.
   -In the PR, scroll to the bottom and click Merge pull request, then Confirm merge.
3. Delete the topic branch when prompted; keeping the branch list tidy is good practice.

Each student should merge one of the other students’ PRs so everyone practices.

8. Capture a snapshot for submission (≈3 min)

1. One teammate downloads a snapshot of the final repository. On the repo’s main page, click Code → Download ZIP. GitHub generates a snapshot of the current branch or commit.
2. Open the Commits page (click the “n commits” link) and take a screenshot showing the commit history.
3. Go to Pull requests → Closed, and capture a screenshot showing the three closed PRs and their approval status. You can also use the Activity view to see a detailed history of pushes, merges, and branch changes.
4. Upload the ZIP file and screenshots to Gradescope.

Tips

• Use descriptive commit messages and branch names.
• Each commit is a snapshot; keep commits focused on a single change.
• Be polite and constructive in your feedback.
• Delete merged branches to keep your repository clean.

This exercise walks you through the entire GitHub flow—creating a repository, branching, committing, creating a PR, reviewing, addressing feedback, merging, and capturing a snapshot. Completing these steps will help you collaborate effectively on future projects.

Hello Rust!

About This Module

This module provides your first hands-on experience with Rust programming. You'll write actual programs, understand basic syntax, and see how Rust's compilation process works. We'll focus on building confidence through practical programming while comparing key concepts to Python.

Prework

Prework Readings

Review this module.

Read the following Rust basics:

• The Rust Programming Language - Chapter 1.2: Hello, World!
• The Rust Programming Language - Chapter 1.3: Hello, Cargo!

Optionally browse:

• Rust by Example - Hello World
• Browse: Rust vs Python Syntax Comparison

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. How does compiling code differ from running Python scripts directly?
2. What might be the advantages of catching errors before your program runs?
3. How does Rust's println! macro compare to Python's print() function?
4. Why might explicit type declarations help prevent bugs?
5. What challenges might you face transitioning from Python's flexibility to Rust's strictness?

Topics

• Installing Rust
• Compiled vs Interpretted Languages
• Write and compile our first simple program

Installing Rust

Before we can write Rust programs, we need to install Rust on your system.

From https://www.rust-lang.org/tools/install:

On MacOS:

# Install Rust via rustup
curl --proto '=https' --tlsv1.2 -sSf https://sh.rustup.rs | sh

Question: can you interpret the shell command above?

On Windows:

Download and run rustup-init.exe (64-bit).

It will ask you some questions.

Download Visual Studio Community Edition Installer.

Open up Visual Studio Community Edition Installer and install the C++ core desktop features.

Verify Installation

From MacOS terminal or Windows CMD or PowerShell

rustc --version    # Should show Rust compiler version
cargo --version    # Should show Cargo package manager version
rustup --version   # Should show Rustup toolchain installer version

Troubleshooting Installation:

# Update Rust if already installed
rustup update

# Check which toolchain is active
rustup show

# Reinstall if needed (a last resort!!)
rustup self uninstall
# Then reinstall following installation steps above

Write and compile simple Rust program

Generally you would create a project directory for all your projects and then a subdirectory for each project.

Follow along now if you have Rust installed, or try at your first opportunity later.

$ mkdir ~/projects
$ cd ~/projects
$ mkdir hello_world
$ cd hello_world

All Rust source files have the extension .rs.

Create and edit a file called main.rs.

For example with the nano editor on MacOS

# From MacoS terminal
nano main.rs

or notepad on Windows

# From Windows CMD or PowerShell
notepad main.rs

and add the following code:

fn main() {
    println!("Hello, world!");
}

Note: Since our course notes are in mdbook, code cells like above can be executed right from the notes!

In many cases we make the code cell editable right on the web page!

If you created that file on the command line, then you compile and run the program with the following commands:

$ rustc main.rs    # compile with rustc which creates an executable

If it compiled correctly, you should have a new file in your directory

For example on MacOS or Linux you might see:

hello_world  % ls -l
total 880
-rwxr-xr-x  1 tgardos  staff  446280 Sep 10 21:03 main
-rw-r--r--  1 tgardos  staff      45 Sep 10 21:02 main.rs

Question: What is the new file? What do you observe about the file properties?

On Windows you'll see main.exe.

$ ./main           # run the executable
Hello, world!

Compiled (e.g. Rust) vs. Interpreted (e.g. Python)

Python: One Step (Interpreted)

python hello.py

• Python reads your code line by line and executes it immediately
• No separate compilation step needed

Rust: Two Steps (Compiled)

# Step 1: Compile (translate to machine code)
rustc hello.rs 

# Step 2: Run the executable
./hello

• rustc is your compiler
• rustc translates your entire program to machine code
• Then you run the executable (why ./?)

The main() function

fn main() { ... }

is how you define a function in Rust.

The function name main is reserved and is the entry point of the program.

The println!() Macro

Let's look at the single line of code in the main function:

    println!("Hello, world!");

Rust convention is to indent with 4 spaces -- never use tabs!!

• println! is a macro which is indicated by the ! suffix.
• Macros are functions that are expanded at compile time.
• The string "Hello, world!" is passed as an argument to the macro.

The line ends with a ; which is the end of the statement.

More Printing Tricks

Let's look at a program that prints in a bunch of different ways.

// A bunch of the output routines
fn main() {
    let x = 9;
    let y = 16;
    
    print!("Hello, DS210!\n");       // Need to include the newline character
    println!("Hello, DS210!\n");     // The newline character here is redundant

    println!("{} plus {} is {}", x, y, x+y);  // print with formatting placeholders
    //println!("{x} plus {y} is {x+y}");      // error: cannot use `x+y` in a format string
    println!("{x} plus {y} is {}\n", x+y);      // but you can put variable names in the format string
}

More on println!

• first parameter is a format string
• {} are replaced by the following parameters

print! is similar to println! but does not add a newline at the end.

To dig deeper on formatting strings:

• fmt module
• Format strings syntax

Input Routines

Here's a fancier program. You don't have to worry about the details, but paste it into a file name.rs, run rustc name.rs and then ./name.

// And some input routines
// So this is for demo purposes
use std::io;
use std::io::Write;

fn main() {
    let mut user_input = String::new();
    print!("What's your name? ");
    io::stdout().flush().expect("Error flushing");  // flush the output and print error if it fails
    let _ =io::stdin().read_line(&mut user_input);  // read the input and store it in user_input
    println!("Hello, {}!", user_input.trim());
}

Project manager: cargo

Rust comes with a very helpful project and package manager: cargo

• create a project: cargo new PROJECT-NAME

• main file will be PROJECT-NAME/src/main.rs

• to run: cargo run

• to just build: cargo build

Cargo example

~ % cd ~/projects 

projects % cargo new cargo-hello
    Creating binary (application) `cargo-hello` package
note: see more `Cargo.toml` keys and their definitions at https://doc.rust-lang.org/cargo/reference/manifest.html

projects % cd cargo-hello 

cargo-hello % tree
.
├── Cargo.toml
└── src
    └── main.rs

2 directories, 2 files

cargo-hello % cargo run
   Compiling cargo-hello v0.1.0 (/Users/tgardos/projects/cargo-hello)
    Finished `dev` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.21s
     Running `target/debug/cargo-hello`
Hello, world!

% tree -L 3
.
├── Cargo.lock
├── Cargo.toml
├── src
│   └── main.rs
└── target
    ├── CACHEDIR.TAG
    └── debug
        ├── build
        ├── cargo-hello
        ├── cargo-hello.d
        ├── deps
        ├── examples
        └── incremental

8 directories, 6 files

Cargo --release

By default, cargo makes a slower debug build that has extra debugging information.

We'll see more about that later.

Add --release to create a "fully optimized" version:

• longer compilation
• faster execution
• some runtime checks not included (e.g., integer overflow)
• debuging information not included
• the executable in a different folder

cargo-hello (master) % cargo build --release
  Compiling cargo-hello v0.1.0 (/Users/tgardos/projects/cargo-hello)
   Finished `release` profile [optimized] target(s) in 0.38s
(.venv) √ cargo-hello (master) % tree -L 2
.
├── Cargo.lock
├── Cargo.toml
├── src
│   └── main.rs
└── target
   ├── CACHEDIR.TAG
   ├── debug
   └── release

5 directories, 4 files

Cargo check

If you just want to check if your current version compiles: cargo check

• Much faster for big projects

Hello Rust Activity

• Get in groups of 3+

• Place the lines of code in order in two parts on the page: your shell, and your code file main.rs to make a reasonable sequence and functional code.

• We'll take the last 5 minutes to share solutions

• Don't stress if you didn't finish! Just paste what you have into GradeScope.

println!("Good work! Average: {:.1}", average);

cargo run

scores.push(88);

git push -u origin main

let average = total as f64 / scores.len() as f64;

cargo new hello_world

} else if average >= 80.0 {

nano src/main.rs

let total: i32 = scores.iter().sum();

if average >= 90.0 {

touch README.md

cd hello_world

fn main() {

git add src/main.rs

println!("Keep trying! Average: {:.1}", average);

let mut scores = vec![85, 92, 78, 96];

ls -la

echo "This is a grade average calculator" > README.md

} else {

git commit -m "Add calculator functionality"

}}

println!("Excellent! Average: {:.1}", average);

Overview of Programming languages

Learning Objectives

• Programming languages
  • Describe the differences between a high level and low level programming language
  • Describe the differences between an interpreted and compiled language
  • Describe the differences between a static and dynamically typed language
  • Know that there are different programming paradigms such as imperative and functional
  • Describe the different memory management techniques
  • Be able to identify the the properties of a particular language such as rust.

Various Language Levels

• Native code

  • usually compiled output of a high-level language, directly executable on target processor

• Assembler

  • low-level but human readable language that targets processor
  • pros: as fine control as in native code
  • cons: not portable

• High level languages

  • various levels of closeness to the architecture: from C to Prolog
  • efficiency:
    • varies
    • could optimize better
  • pros:
    • very portable
    • easier to build large projects
  • cons:
    • some languages are resource–inefficient

Assembly Language Examples

  ARM                          X86
. text                       section .text
.global _start                 global _start
_start:                      section .data
   mov r0, #1                msg db  'Hello, world!',0xa
   ldr r1, =message          len equ 0xe
   ldr r2, =len              section .text
   mov r7, #4                _start:
   swi 0                     mov edx,len ;message length
   mov r7, #1                mov ecx,msg ;message to write
                             mov ebx,1   ;file descriptor (stdout)
.data.                       mov eax,4   ;system call number (sys_write)
message:                     int 0x80    ;call kernel
   .asciz "hello world!\n"   mov ebx,0   ;process' exit code
len = .-message.             mov eax,1   ;system call number (sys_exit)
                             int 0x80    ;call kernel - this interrupt won't return

Interpreted vs. compiled

Interpreted:

• An application (interpreter) reads commands one by one and executes them.
• One step process to run an application:
  • python hello.py

("Fully") Compiled:

• Translated to native code by compiler
• Usually more efficient
• Two steps to execute:
  1. Compile (Rust: rustc hello.rs)
  2. Run (Rust: ./hello)

Compiled to Intermediate Representation (IR):

• Example: Java
  • Portable intermediate format
  • Needs another application, Java virtual machine, that knows how to interpret it
• Example: Python
  • Under some circumstances Python bytecode is created and cached in __pycache__
  • Python bytecode is platform independent and executed by the Python Virtual Machine

Just-in-Time (JIT) compilation is an interesting wrinkle in that it can take interpreted and intermediate format languages and compile them down to machine code.

Type checking: static vs. dynamic

Dynamic (e.g., Python):

• checks if an object can be used for specific operation during runtime
• pros:
  • don't have to specify the type of object
  • procedures can work for various types
  • faster or no compilation
• cons:
  • slower at runtime
  • problems are detected late

Consider the following python code.

def add(x,y):
    return x + y

print(add(2,2))
print(add("a","b"))
print(add(2,"b"))

    4
    ab

    ---------------------------------------------------------------------------

    TypeError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)

    Cell In[1], line 6
          4 print(add(2,2))
          5 print(add("a","b"))
    ----> 6 print(add(2,"b"))


    Cell In[1], line 2, in add(x, y)
          1 def add(x,y):
    ----> 2     return x + y


    TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'str'

There is optional typing specification, but it is not enforced, e.g. accepting ints.

import typing
def add(x:str, y:str) -> str:
    return x + y
print(add(2,2))    # doesn't complain about getting integer types
print(add("ab", "cd"))
#print(add(2,"n"))

    4
    abcd

• You can use packages such as pyright or mypy as a type checker before running your programs
• Supported by VSCode python extension

Type checking: static vs. dynamic

Static (e.g, C++, Rust, OCaml, Java):

• checks if types of objects are as specified
• pros:
  • faster at runtime
  • type mismatch detected early
• cons:
  • often need to be explicit with the type
  • making procedures generic may be difficult
  • potentially slower compilation

C++:

int add(int x, int y) {
    return x + y;
}

Rust:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn add(x:i32, y:i32) -> i32 {
    x + y
}
}

Type checking: static vs. dynamic

Note: some languages are smart and you don't have to always specify types (e.g., OCaml, Rust)

Rust:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x : i32 = 7;
let y = 3;    // Implied to be default integer type
let z = x * y;  // Type of result derived from types of operands
}

Various programming paradigms

• Imperative
• Functional
• Object-oriented
• Declarative / programming in logic

Imperative

im·per·a·tive (adjective) -- give an authoritive command

# Python -- Imperative
def factorial(N):
    ret = 1
    for i in range(N):
        ret = ret * i
    return ret

Functional

; Scheme, a dialect of lisp -- functional

(define (factorial n) (cond ((= n 0) 1) 
                            (t (* n (factorial (- n 1)))))) 

Object Oriented

// C++ -- Object oriented pattern
class Factorial {
   private:
     int64 value;
   public:
     int64 factorial(int input) {
        int64 temp = 1;
        for(int i=1; i<=input; i++) {
            temp = temp * i;
        }
        value = temp
     }
     int64 get_factorial() {
        return value;
     }
}

Declarative/Logic

% Prolog -- declaritive / programming in logic
factorial(0,1).      % Base case
factorial(N,M) :-
    N>0,             % Ensure N is greater than 0
    N1 is N-1,       % Decrement N
    factorial(N1, M1),  % Recursive call
    M is N * M1.     % Calculate factorial

Memory management: manual vs. garbage collection

At least 3 kinds:

1. Manual (e.g. C, C++)
2. Garbage collection (e.g. Java, Python)
3. Ownership-based (e.g. Rust)

Manual

• Need to explicitly ask for memory and return it
• pros:
  • more efficient
  • better in real–time applications
• cons:
  • more work for the programmer
  • more prone to errors
  • major vector for attacks/hacking

Example below in C++.

Garbage collection

• Memory freed automatically
• pros:
  • less work for the programmer
  • more difficult to make mistakes
• cons:
  • less efficient
  • can lead to sudden slowdowns

Ownership-Based

• Keeps track of memory object ownership
  • Allows borrowing, references without borrowing, move ownership
• When object goes out of scope, Rust automatically deallocates
• Managed deterministically at compile-time, not run-time like garbage collection

We'll dive deeper into Rust ownership later.

Rust Language (Recap)

• high–level

• imperative

• compiled

• static type checking

• ownership-based memory management

Most important difference between Python and Rust?

How do we denote blocks of code?

• Python: indentation
• Rust: {...}

Example in Rust

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn hi() {
    println!("Hello!");
    println!("How are you?");
}
}

Don't be afraid of braces!!! You'll encounter them in C, C++, Java, Javascript, PHP, Rust, ...

Memory Structure of an Executable Program

It's very helpful to have conceptual understanding of how memory is structured in executable programs.

The figure below illustrates a typical structure, where some low starting memory address is at the bottom and then memory addresses increase as you go up in the figure.

Here's a short description of each section starting from the bottom:

1. text -- the code, e.g. program instructions
2. initialized data -- explicitly initialized global/static variables
3. uninitialized data (bss) -- uninitialized global/static variables, generally auto-initialied to zero. BSS -- Block Started by Symbol
4. heap -- dynamically allocated memory. grows as structures are allocated
5. stack -- used for local variables and function calls

Example of unsafe programming in C

Let's take a look at the problem with the following C program which asks you to guess a string and hints whether your guess was lexically less or greater.

• Copy the code into a file unsafe.c
• Compile with a local C compiler, for example, cc unsafe.c
• Execute program, e.g. ./a.out

Try with the following length guesses:

1. guesses of string length <= 20
2. guesses of string length > 20
3. guesses of string length >> 20

Pay attention to the printout of secretString!

Lecture Note: Switch to code

#include <signal.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main(){
    char loop_bool[20];
    char secretString[20];
    char givenString[20];
    char x;
    int i, ret;

    memset(&loop_bool, 0, 20);
    for (i=0;i<19;i++) {
      x = 'a' + random() % 26; 
      secretString[i] = x;
    }
    printf("secretString: %s\n", secretString);
    while (!loop_bool[0]) { 
        gets(givenString);
        ret = strncmp(secretString, givenString, 20);
        if (0 == ret) {
            printf("SUCCESS!\n");
	    break;
	}else if (ret < 0){
	    printf("LESS!\n");
	} else {
	    printf("MORE!\n");
        }
        printf("secretString: %s\n", secretString);
    }
    printf("secretString: %s\n", secretString);
    printf("givenString: %s\n", givenString);
    return 0;
}

A Brief Aside -- The people behind the languages

Who are these people?

• Guido Van Rossum
• Graydon Hoare
• Bjarne Stroustrup
• James Gosling
• Brendan Eich
• Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie

Who are these people?

• Guido Van Rossum -- Python
• Graydon Hoare -- Rust
• Bjarne Stroustrup -- C++
• James Gosling -- Java
• Brendan Eich -- Javascript
• Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie -- C

Recap

Guessing Game Part 1

Building a very small Rust application.

Guessing Game Part 1

We're going to build on "Hello Rust" to write a small guessing game program.

You're not expected to understand all the details of all the code, but rather start getting familiar with the language and with building applications.

Let's eat the cake 🍰 and then we'll learn the recipe👨‍🍳.

Tip: Follow along in your terminal or PowerShell window.

Learning objectives:

By the end of this module you should be able to:

• Use basic cargo commands to create projects and compile rust code
• Add external dependencies (crates) to a project
• Recognize some useful syntax like Rust's Result type with .expect()
• Recognize and fix some common Rust compilation errors

Keep Practicing with the Terminal

• This is Part 1 where we use the terminal
• In Part 2, we will start using VSCode which integrates
  • code editor
  • terminal window
  • compiler hints
  • AI assistance

Guessing game demo

Compiling review and reference

Option 1: Compile directly

• put the content in file hello.rs
• command line:
  • navigate to this folder
  • rustc hello.rs
  • run ./hello or hello.exe

Option 2: Use Cargo

• create a project: cargo new PROJECT-NAME
• main file will be PROJECT-NAME/src/main.rs
• to build and run: cargo run
• the machine code will be in : ./target/debug/PROJECT-NAME

Different ways to run Cargo

• cargo run compiles, runs, and saves the binary/executable in /target/debug
• cargo build compiles but does not run
• cargo check checks if it compiles (fastest)
• cargo run --release creates (slowly) "fully optimized" binary in /target/release

Back to the guessing game

In MacOS terminal or Windows PowerShell, go to the folder you created to hold all your projects:

cd ~/projects

Let's use cargo to create a project:

cargo new guessing-game

Replace the contents of src/main.rs with:

use std::io;

fn main() {
    println!("Guess the number!");
    println!("Please input your guess.");

    let mut guess = String::new();

    // This is all technically one line of code
    io::stdin()
      .read_line(&mut guess)
      .expect("Failed to read line");

    println!("You guessed: {}", guess);
}

And then:

cargo run

Question: Program doesn't do much? How can we improve it?

More on variables

Let's take a look at this variable assignment:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
    let mut guess = String::new();
}

As we saw in the earlier module, we assign a variable with let as in

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let count = 5;
}

But by default Rust variables are immutable.

Definition:
im·mu·ta·ble
adjective
unchanging over time or unable to be changed
"an immutable fact"

Try executing the following code cell.

fn main() {
  let count = 5;
  count = 7;
}

Rust compiler errors are pretty descriptive!

error[E0384]: cannot assign twice to immutable variable `count`
 --> src/main.rs:4:1
  |
3 | let count = 5;
  |     ----- first assignment to `count`
4 | count = 7;
  | ^^^^^^^^^ cannot assign twice to immutable variable
  |
help: consider making this binding mutable
  |
3 | let mut count = 5;
  |     +++

For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0384`.
error: could not compile `playground` (bin "playground") due to 1 previous error

It often even tells you how to correct the error with the mut keyword to make the variable mutable.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut count = 5;
count = 7;
}

Question: Why might it be helpful to have variables be immutable by default?

.expect() - a tricky concept

We'll go into all of this more later, but:

• read_line() returns a Result type which has two variants - Ok and Err
• Ok means the operation succeeded, and returns the successful value
• Err means something went wrong, and it returns the string you passed to .expect()

More in a few future module.

More on macros!

• A macro is code that writes other code for you / expands BEFORE it compiles.
• They end with ! like println!, vec!, or panic!

For example, println!("Hello"); roughly expands into

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
use std::io::{self, Write};
io::stdout().write_all(b"Hello\n").unwrap();
}

while println!("Name: {}, Age: {}", name, age); expands into

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
use std::io::{self, Write};
io::stdout().write_fmt(format_args!("Name: {}, Age: {}\n", name, age)).unwrap();
}

Rust Crates

In Rust, the collection files in a project form a "crate".

You can have:

• binary or application crate, that you can execute directly, or a
• library crate, which you can use in your application

Rust makes it super easy to publish and use crates.

See crates.io.

Using crates: generate a random number

We want to add a random number, so we need a way of generating them.

Rust doesn't have a random number generator in its standard library so we will use a crate called rand.

We can do that with the command:

cargo add rand

which will produce an output like...

% cargo add rand
    Updating crates.io index
      Adding rand v0.9.2 to dependencies
             Features:
             + alloc
             + os_rng
             + small_rng
             + std
             + std_rng
             + thread_rng
             - log
             - nightly
             - serde
             - simd_support
             - unbiased
    Updating crates.io index
     Locking 17 packages to latest Rust 1.85.1 compatible versions
      Adding cfg-if v1.0.3
      Adding getrandom v0.3.3
      Adding libc v0.2.175
      Adding ppv-lite86 v0.2.21
      Adding proc-macro2 v1.0.101
      Adding quote v1.0.40
      Adding r-efi v5.3.0
      Adding rand v0.9.2
      Adding rand_chacha v0.9.0
      Adding rand_core v0.9.3
      Adding syn v2.0.106
      Adding unicode-ident v1.0.19
      Adding wasi v0.14.5+wasi-0.2.4
      Adding wasip2 v1.0.0+wasi-0.2.4
      Adding wit-bindgen v0.45.1
      Adding zerocopy v0.8.27
      Adding zerocopy-derive v0.8.27

Take a look at Cargo.toml now.

cat Cargo.toml

[package]
name = "guessing-game-part1"
version = "0.1.0"
edition = "2024"

[dependencies]
rand = "=0.8.5"

Note that the version number is captured.

Also take a look at Cargo.lock.

It's kind of like pip freeze or conda env export in that it fully specifies your environment down to the package versions.

Generate Random Number

So now that we've specified that we will use the rand crate, we add to our main.rs:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
use rand::Rng;
}

after the use std::io, and add right after fn main() {

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let secret_number = rand::rng().random_range(1..=100);
println!("The secret number is: {secret_number}");
}

Run your program. Whaddayathink so far?

Let's Check Guess

Obviously, we better compare the guess to the "secret number".

Add the following code to the end of your main function.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
    if guess == secret_number {
        println!("You win!");
    } else {
        println!("You lose!");
    }
}

And run your program again. 🤔

In-Class Activity: Compiler Error Hints!

This activity is designed to teaching you to to not fear compiler errors and to show you that Rust's error messages are actually quite helpful once you learn to read them!

Please do NOT use VSCode yet! Open your files in nano, TextEdit / Notepad or another plain text editor.

Instructions

The code asks the user for a series of integers, one at a time, then counts the number, sum and average.

But there are four syntax errors in the code.

Working in pairs, fix the syntax errors based on the compiler error messages.

Put a comment (using double backslashes, e.g. \\ comment) either on the line before or at the end of the stating what you changed to fix the error.

Paste the corrected code into Gradescope.

I'll give you a 2 minute warning to wrap up in gradescope and then we'll review the errors.

Again Please do NOT use VSCode yet! It ruins the fun

Setup Instructions

Go to your projects folder and create a new Rust project.

cd ~/projects    # or whatever your main projects folder is called

cargo new compiler-errors

cd compiler-errors

cargo add rand

# quick test of the default project
cargo run

You should see "Hello World!" without any errors.

Starter Code (src/main.rs)

Replace the code in main.rs with the following code.

use std::io::{self, Write};

fn main() {
    println!("Enter integers, one per line. Empty line to finish.")

    let nums: Vec<i32> = Vec::new()

    loop {
        print!("> ");
        io::stdout().flush().unwrap();

        let mut input = String::new();
        if io::stdin().read_line(&mut input).is_err() { return; }

        let trimmed = input.trim();

        if trimmed.is_empty():
          break; 

        match trimmed.parse::<i32>() {
            Ok(n) => nums.push(n),
            Err(_) => println!("Please enter a valid integer."),
        }
    }

    if nums.is_empty() {
        println!("No numbers entered.");
    } else {
        let sum: i32 = nums.iter().sum();
        let avg = sum as f64 / nums.len() as f64;
        println!("Count = {nums.len()}, Sum = {sum}, Average = {avg:.2}");
    }
}

• Compile the code
• Read the compiler output, starting from the top
• Fix the error
• Repeat...

List of Errors

What did you find?

• error 1:
• error 2:
• error 3:
• error 4:

Recap

• Variables in Rust are immutable by default - we need to explicitly mark them as mut to make them mutable
• The let keyword is used for variable declaration and initialization in Rust
• Rust has strong error handling with Result types that have Ok and Err variants
• The .expect() method is used to handle potential errors by unwrapping the Result or panicking with a message
• Basic I/O in Rust uses the std::io module for reading from stdin and writing to stdout

Topics

1. Numbering Systems
2. The Von Neumann Architecture
3. Memory Hierarchy and Memory Concepts
4. Trends, Sizes and Costs

Numbering Systems

• Decimal (0-9) e.g. 1724
• Binary (0-1) e.g. 0b011000 (24 decimal)
• Octal (0-7) e.g. 0o131 (89 decimal)
• Hexadecimal (0-9, A-F) e.g 0x13F (319 decimal)

Converting between numbering systems

For any base b to decimal. Assume number C with digits $C_k{C}_{k-1}...C_2{C}_1{C}_0$

$D={\sum }_{i=0}^k{C}_i\ast b^i$

Between octal and binary

Every octal digit corresponds to exactly 3 binary digits and the reverse. For example 0o34 = 0b011_100. Traverse numbers right to left and prepend with 0s if necessary.

Between hexadecimal and binary

Every hexadecimal digit corresponds to exactly 4 binary digits and the reverse. For example 0x3A = 0b0011_1010. Traverse numbers right to left and prepend with 0s if necessary.

Between decimal and binary (or any base b)

More complicated. Divide repeatedly by 2 (or the base b) and keep the remainder as the next most significant binary digit. Stop when the division returns 0.

i = 0 
while D > 0:
  C[i] = D % 2 # modulo operator -- or substitute 2 for any base b
  D = D // 2 # floor division -- or substitute 2 for any base b
  i += 1

What about between decimal and octal/hexadecimal

You can use the same logic as for binary or convert to binary and then use the binary to octal/hexadecimal simple conversions

The Von Neuman Architecture

Named after the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC written by mathematician John von Neuman in 1945.

Most processor architectures are still based on this same model.

Key Components

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU):
   • The CPU is the core processing unit responsible for executing instructions and performing computations. It consists of:
   • Control Unit (CU):
     • Directs the operations of the CPU by interpreting instructions and coordinating data flow between the components.
     • Controls the flow of data between the input, memory, and output devices.
   • Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU):
     • Performs arithmetic operations (e.g., addition, subtraction) and logical operations (e.g., AND, OR, NOT).
     • Acts as the computational engine of the CPU.
2. Memory Unit:
   • Stores data and instructions needed for processing.
   • The memory serves as temporary storage for instructions being executed and intermediate data.
   • It communicates with both the CPU and input/output devices.
3. Input Device:
   • Provides data or instructions to the CPU.
   • Examples include keyboards, mice, and sensors.
   • Data flows from the input device into the CPU for processing.
4. Output Device:
   • Displays or transmits the results of computations performed by the CPU.
   • Examples include monitors, printers, and actuators.

Also known as the stored program architecture

Both data and program stored in memory and it's just convention which parts of memory contain instructions and which ones contain variables.

Two very special registers in the processor: Program Counter (PC) and Stack Pointer (SP)

PC: Points to the next instruction. Auto-increments by one when instruction is executed with the exception of branch and jmp instructions that explicitly modify it. Branch instructions used in loops and conditional statements. Jmp instructions used in function calls.

SP: Points to beginning of state (parameters, local variables, return address, old stackpointer etc) for current function call.

Intruction Decoding

Use the Program Counter to fetch the next instruction. After fetching you have to decode it, and subsequently to execute it.

Decoding instructions requires that you split the instruction number to the opcode (telling you what to do) and the operands (telling what data to operate one)

Example from MIPS (Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages) Intruction Set Architecture (ISA). MIPS is RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer).

The time cost of operations

Assume for example a processor clocked at 2 GHz, e.g. $(2\times 10^9)$.

• Executing an instruction ~ 0.5 ns (1 clock cycle)
• Getting a value (4 bytes) from L1 cache ~1 ns
• Branch mispredict ~3 ns
• Getting a value from L2 cache ~4 ns
• Send 1Kbyte of data over 1Gbps network (just send not arrive) ~ 16 ns
• Get a value from main memory ~100 ns
• Read 1MB from main memory sequentially ~1000 ns
• Compress 1Kbyte (in L1 cache) with zippy ~2000 ns
• Read 1MB from SSD ~49,000 µs
• Send a ping pong packet inside a datacenter ~500,000 ns
• Read 1Mbyte from HDD ~825,000 ns
• Do an HDD seek ~2,000,000 ns
• Send a packet from US to Europe and back ~150,000,000 ns

https://samwho.dev/numbers/

The memory hierarchy and memory concepts

We've talked about different kinds of memory. It's helpful to think of it in terms of a hierarchy.

• As indicated above, registers are closest to the processor and fastest.
• As you move farther away, the size gets larger but access gets slower

The following figure from Hennesy and Patterson is also very informative.

From Hennesy and Patterson, Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach_.

When the CPU tries to read from a memory location it

• First checks if that memory location is copied to L1 cache
  • if it is, then the value is returned
  • if it is not...
• Then checks if the memory location is copied to L2 cache
  • if it is, then the value is copied to L1 cache and returned
  • if it is not...
• Then checks if the memory location is copied to L3 cache
  • if it is, then the value is copied to L2, then L1 and returned
  • if it is not...
• Go to main memory
  • fetch a cache line size of data, typically 64 bytes (why?)

More on Caches

• Each cache line size of memory can be mapped to one of $N$ cache slots in each cache
• we say such a cache is $N$-way
• if all $N$ slots are occupied, then we evict the Least Recently Used (LRU) slots

Direct mapped versus 2-way cache mapping. Wikipedia: CPU cache

We can see the cache configuration on a Linux system with the getconf command.

Here's the output from the MOC.

$ getconf -a | grep CACHE
LEVEL1_ICACHE_SIZE                 32768  (32KB)
LEVEL1_ICACHE_ASSOC                8
LEVEL1_ICACHE_LINESIZE             64

LEVEL1_DCACHE_SIZE                 32768  (32KB)
LEVEL1_DCACHE_ASSOC                8
LEVEL1_DCACHE_LINESIZE             64

LEVEL2_CACHE_SIZE                  1048576 (1MB)
LEVEL2_CACHE_ASSOC                 16
LEVEL2_CACHE_LINESIZE              64

LEVEL3_CACHE_SIZE                  23068672 (22MB)
LEVEL3_CACHE_ASSOC                 11
LEVEL3_CACHE_LINESIZE              64

LEVEL4_CACHE_SIZE                  0
LEVEL4_CACHE_ASSOC                 0
LEVEL4_CACHE_LINESIZE              0

How many way associative are they?

Why is 32kb not 32,000? When is K 1,000?

An 8-way associative cache with 32 KB of size and 64-byte blocks divides the cache into 64 sets, each with 8 cache lines. Memory addresses are mapped to specific sets.

Benefits of 8-Way Associativity:

1. Reduces Conflict Misses:
   • Associativity allows multiple blocks to map to the same set, reducing the likelihood of eviction due to conflicts.
2. Balances Complexity and Performance:
   • Higher associativity generally improves hit rates but increases lookup complexity. An 8-way cache strikes a good balance for most applications.

Cache Use Examples

Example from this blog post.

Contiguous read loop

// cache1.cpp

#include <time.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

/*
 * Contiguous access loop
 * 
 * Example from https://mecha-mind.medium.com/demystifying-cpu-caches-with-examples-810534628d71
 *
 * compile with `clang cache.cpp -o cache`
 * run with `./cache`
 */

int main(int argc, char* argv[]) {
    const int length = 512 * 1024 * 1024;   // 512M
    const int cache_line_size = 16;  // size in terms of ints (4 bytes) so 16 * 4 = 64 bytes
    const int m = length/cache_line_size;  // 512M / 32 = 32M

    printf("Looping %d M times\n", m/(1024*1024));

    int *arr = (int*)malloc(length * sizeof(int)); // 512M length array

    clock_t start = clock();
    for (int i = 0; i < m; i++)   // loop 32M times with contiguous access
        arr[i]++;
    clock_t stop = clock();
    
    double duration = ((double)(stop - start)) / CLOCKS_PER_SEC * 1000;
    
    printf("Duration: %f ms\n", duration);

    free(arr);
    return 0;
}

When running on Apple M2 Pro.

% clang cache1.cpp -o cache1
% ./cache1
Looping 32 M times
Duration: 54.166000 ms

Now let's modify the loop to jump by intervals of cache_line_size

Noncontiguous Read Loop

// cache2.cpp

    for (int i = 0; i < m*cache_line_size; i+=cache_line_size) // non-contiguous access
        arr[i]++;
    clock_t stop = clock();

% ./cache2
Looping 32 M times
Duration: 266.715000 ms

About 5X slower. What happened?

Noncontiguous with 2x cache line jump

We loop half the amount of times!!

    for (int i = 0; i < m*cache_line_size; i+=2*cache_line_size) {
        arr[i]++;
        arr[i+cache_line_size]++;
    }

When running on Apple M2 Pro.

% ./cache3
Looping 16 M times
Duration: 255.551000 ms

Caches on multi-processor systems

For multi-processor systems (which are now standard), memory hierarchy looks something like this:

In other words, each core has it's own L1 and L2 cache, but the L3 cache and of course main memory is shared.

Virtual Memory, Page Tables and TLBs

• The addressable memory address range is much larger than available physical memory
• Every program thinks it can access every possible memory address.
  • And there has to exist some security to prevent one program from modifying the memory occupied by another.
• The mechanism for that is virtual memory, paging and address translation

Wikipedia: Page table

From University of Illinois CS 241 lecture notes.

Page sizes are typically 4KB, 2MB or 1GB depending on the operating system.

If you access a memory address that is not paged into memory, there is a page fault while a page is possible evicted and a the memory is loaded from storage into memory.

Trends, Sizes and Costs

We'll finish by looking at some representative costs, sizes and computing "laws."

Costs

• Server GPU: \$10000-\$30000\ast CPU:$500-$1000
• DRAM: \$5-\$10/Gbyte\ast Flash:$0.05-$.01/Gbyte
• Disk: \$0.01-\$0.02/Gbyte\ast Network:\$100for10GbpsNIC.Difficulttopricenetworkasitdependsonwhere\ast NetworkTransfer:$0.02-$0.14/Gbyte

Sizes

For a typical server

2 X 2Ghz Intel/ADM processors
32-128Gbytes of memory
10-100 Tbytes of storage
10Gbps Network card
1-2 KWatts of power

For a typical datacenter

100K - 1M sercers
1+ MWatt of power 1-10 Pbbs of internal bandwidth, 1-10 Tbps of Internet facing bandwidth 1-10 Exabytes of storage

Trends

Computers grow fast so we have written some rules of thumb about them

• Kryder's Law -- Storage density doubles every 12 months
• Nielsen's Law -- Consumer Bandwidth doubles every 20 months
• Moore's Law -- CPU capacity doubles every 18 months
• Metcalfe's Law -- The value of a Network increases with the square of its members
• Bell's Law -- Every 10 years the computing paradigm changes

In Class Poll

Guessing Game Part 2: VSCode & Completing the Game

Learning objectives

By the end of class today you should be able to:

• Use VSCode with rust-analyzer and the integrated terminal for Rust development
• Start using loops and conditional logic in Rust
• Use match expressions and Ordering for comparisons
• Keep your code tidy and readable with clippy, comments, and doc strings

Why VSCode for Rust?

• Rust Analyzer: Real-time error checking, autocomplete, type hints
• Integrated terminal: No more switching windows
• Git integration: Visual diffs, staging, commits

Setting up VSCode for Rust

You'll need to have

• Installed VSCode
• Installed Rust
• Installed the rust-analyzer extension

Opening our project

To make sure we're all at the same starting point, we'll recreate the project.

From MacOS terminal or Windows PowerShell (not git-bash):

# change to your projects folder
cd ~/projects

cargo new guessing_game

cd guessing_game

# check what the default branch name is
git branch

# if default branch is called `master`, rename it to `main`
git branch -m master main

# Add the `rand` crate to the project
cargo add rand

# start VS Code in the current directory
code .

or use File → Open Folder from VSCode and open ~/projects/guessing_game.

VSCode Features Demo

Side Panel

• Explorer
  • single click and double click filenames
  • split editor views
• Search,
• Source Control,
• Run and Debug,
• Extensions
  • You should have rust-analyzer, not rust!

Integrated Terminal

• View → Terminal, Terminal → New
• You can have multiple terminals
• Same commands as before: cargo run, cargo check

Rust Analyzer in Action

What you'll see:

• Red squiggles - Compiler errors
• Yellow squiggles - Warnings
• Hover tooltips - Type information
• Autocomplete - As you type suggestions
• Format on save - Automatic code formatting

Let's see it in action!

Completing Our Guessing Game

Restore Guessing Game

Replace the content in main.rs with the following:

use std::io;
use rand::Rng;

fn main() {
    let secret_number = rand::rng().random_range(1..=100);
    //println!("The secret number is: {secret_number}");

    println!("Guess the number between 1 and 100!");
    println!("Please input your guess.");

    let mut guess = String::new();

    io::stdin()
        .read_line(&mut guess)
        .expect("Failed to read line");

    println!("You guessed: {}", guess);

}

Running from VSCode

You have different ways to run the program:

1. cargo run from terminal
2. Click the little Run that decorates above fn main() {

VSCode Git Integration

Visual Git Features:

• Source Control panel - See changed files
• Diff view - Side-by-side comparisons
• Stage changes - Click the + button
• Commit - Write message and commit

Still use terminal for:

• git status - Quick overview
• git log --oneline - Commit history
• git push / git pull - Syncing

Create Git Commit

Let's use the visual interface to make our initi commit.

You can always do this via the integrated terminal instead.

Click the Source Control icon on the left panel.

Click + to stage each file or stage all changes.

Write the commit message: "Initial commit" and click Commit

Now you can see on the left pane that we have one commit.

Making it a real game:

1. Remove the secret reveal - no cheating!
2. Add a loop - keep playing until correct
3. Compare numbers - too high? too low?
4. Handle invalid input - what if they type "banana"?

But before we proceed, create a topic branch by

• clicking on main in the bottom left
• Select Create new branch...
• Give it a name like compare

Step 1: Comparing Numbers

First, we need to convert the guess to a number and compare:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// add at top of file after other `use` statements
use std::cmp::Ordering;

// Add this after reading input:
let guess: u32 = guess.trim().parse().expect("Please enter a number!");

match guess.cmp(&secret_number) {
    Ordering::Less => println!("Too small!"),
    Ordering::Greater => println!("Too big!"),
    Ordering::Equal => println!("You win!"),
}
}

Now run the program to make sure it works.

If it does, then commit the changes to your topic branch.

Note how you can see the changes in the Source Control panel.

Merge Topic Branch

If you had a remote repo setup like on GitHub, you would then:

• push your topic branch to the remote git push origin branch_name
• ask someone to review and possible make changes and push those to the remote

But for now, we are just working locally.

git checkout main
# or use VSCode to switch to main

# merge changes from topic branch into main
git merge compare # replace 'compare' with your branch name

# delete your topic branch
git branch -d compare

Step 2: Adding the Loop

Now, we want to wrap the input/comparison in a loop.

But first create a new topic branch, e.g. loop

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
loop {
    println!("Please input your guess.");
    
    // ... input code ...
    
    match guess.cmp(&secret_number) {
        Ordering::Less => println!("Too small!"),
        Ordering::Greater => println!("Too big!"),
        Ordering::Equal => {
            println!("You win!");
            break;  // Exit the loop
        }
    }
}
}

You can indent multiple lines of code by selecting all the lines and then pressing TAB.

Try the code and if it works, commit, checkout main, merge topic branch and then delete topic branch.

Step 3: Handling Invalid Input

Run the program again and then try typing a word instead of a number.

Not great behavior, right?

Replace .expect() with proper error handling, but first create a topic branch.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let guess: u32 = match guess.trim().parse() {
    Ok(num) => num,
    Err(_) => {
        println!("Please enter a valid number!");
        continue;  // Skip to next loop iteration
    }
};
}

Replace the relevant code, run and debug and do the git steps again.

You should end up on the main branch with all the changes merged and 4 commits.

Final Complete Game

use std::io;
use rand::Rng;
use std::cmp::Ordering;

fn main() {
    let secret_number = rand::rng().random_range(1..=100);
    //println!("The secret number is: {secret_number}");

    println!("Guess the number between 1 and 100!");

    loop {
        println!("Please input your guess.");

        let mut guess = String::new();

        io::stdin()
            .read_line(&mut guess)
            .expect("Failed to read line");

        println!("You guessed: {}", guess);

        let guess: u32 = match guess.trim().parse() {
            Ok(num) => num,
            Err(_) => {
                println!("Please enter a valid number!");
                continue;  // Skip to next loop iteration
            }
        };

        match guess.cmp(&secret_number) {
            Ordering::Less => println!("Too small!"),
            Ordering::Greater => println!("Too big!"),
            Ordering::Equal => {
                println!("You win!");
                break;  // exit the loop
            }
        }
    }

}

Comments & Documentation Best Practices

What would happen if you came back to this program in a month?

Inline Comments (//)

• Explain why, not what the code does
• Bad: // Create a random number
• Good: // Generate secret between 1-100 for balanced difficulty
• If it's not clear what the code does you should edit the code!

Doc Comments (///)

• Document meaningful chunks of code like functions, structs, modules
• Show up in cargo doc and IDE tooltips

/// Prompts user for a guess and validates input
/// Returns the parsed number or continues loop on invalid input
fn get_user_guess() -> u32 {
    // implementation...
}

You can try putting a doc comment right before fn main() {

The Better Comments extension

See it on VS Code marketplace

• Color-codes different types of comments in VSCode - let's paste it into main.rs and see

// TODO: Add input validation here
// ! FIXME: This will panic on negative numbers
// ? Why does this work differently on Windows?
// * Important: This function assumes sorted input

Hello VSCode and Hello Github Classroom!

Part 1: GitHub Classroom Set-up

Step 1: Accept the Assignment (One Person Per Group)

1. Go here: https://classroom.github.com/a/XY-1jTAX
2. Sign into GitHub if you aren't signed in, then select your name from the list
3. Create or join a team:
   • If you're first in your group: Click "Create a new team" and name it (e.g., "team-alice-bob")
   • If teammate already started: Find and click on your team name
4. Click "Accept this assignment"
5. Click on repository URL to open it - it will look something like this:

   https://github.com/cdsds210-fall25-b1/activity6-team-alice-bob
   

Step 2: Clone the Repository (Everyone)

Open a terminal and navigate to where you keep your projects (optional, but recommended for organization).

cd path/to/your/projects/

In the GitHub webpage for your group, click the green "code" button, and copy the link.

Then clone the repo in your terminal. Your clone command will look like one of these:

git clone https://github.com/cdsds210-fall25-b1/your-team-repo-name.git # HTTPS

Troubleshooting:

• If HTTPS asks for password: Use your GitHub username and a personal access token (not your GitHub password)

Step 3: Open in VSCode (Everyone)

cd your-team-repo-name
code .

You may see recommendations for a few extensions - do not install them. Carefully select extensions to install.

Step 4: VSCode Exploration

From within your project, open src/main.rs in the navigation sidebar.

Explore These Features:

• Hover over variables - What type information do you see?
• Type println! and wait - Notice the autocomplete suggestions
• Introduce a typo (like printl!) - See the red squiggle error
• Hover over rand to see definition pop up
• Right-click on rand - Try "Go to Definition" to jump to code
• Open integrated terminal (Ctrl+` or View -> Terminal)
• Run cargo run from the VSCode terminal

Part 2: Making contributions

Step 1: Make a plan as a team

Take a look at src/main.rs the repo as a group and identify two errors using VSCode hints and/or cargo check (you may need to fix one bug first in order to find the other). Then divide up these tasks among your team:

1. Fixing the bugs (could be one person or split among two people)
2. Adding some comments into src/main.rs to explain how the code works
3. Editing the README.md file to include a short summary of how you found the bugs, anything that was confusing or rewarding about this activity, or any other reflections

Step 2: Make individual branches

Make a branch that includes your name and what you're working on, eg. ryan-semicolon-bug-fix or kia-adding-comments

git checkout -b your-branch-name

Step 3: Fix your bug and/or add comments

Talk to each other if you need help!

Step 4: Commit and push

git add . # or add specific files
git commit -m "fix missing semicolon" # your own descriptive comment here 
git push -u origin ryan-semicolon-bug-fix # your own branch name here

Step 5: Create a Pull Request

1. Go to your team's GitHub repository in your browser
2. Click the yellow "Compare & pull request" button (or go to "Pull requests" → "New pull request")
3. Make sure the base is main and compare is your branch
4. Write a title like "Fix semicolon bug"
5. Click "Create pull request"

Step 6: Review PRs and Merge

1. Look at someone else's pull request (not your own!)
2. Click "Files changed" to see their changes
3. Leave feedback or request other changes if you want
4. When you're ready, go to "Review changes" -> "Approve" -> "Submit review"
5. Click "Merge pull request" -> "Confirm merge"

If you encounter "merge conflicts" try following these instructions.

Step 7: Is it working?

Run git checkout main and git pull when you're all done, and cargo run to see if your final code is working!

There's no "submit" button / step in GitHub Classroom - when you're done and your main branch is how you want it, you're done!

Wrap-up

What we've accomplished so far:

• Can now use shell, git, and rust all in one place (VSCode)
• We built a complete, functional game from scratch
• Started learning key Rust concepts: loops, matching, error handling
• We've practiced using GitHub Classroom - you'll use it for HW2!

Variables and Types in Rust

About This Module

This module covers Rust's type system and variable handling, including immutability by default, variable shadowing, numeric types, boolean operations, characters, and strings. Understanding these fundamentals is essential for all Rust programming.

Prework

Prework Readings

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 3.1: Variables and Mutability
• Chapter 3.2: Data Types

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. Why might immutable variables by default be beneficial for programming?
2. What is the difference between variable shadowing and mutability?
3. How do strongly typed languages like Rust prevent certain classes of bugs?
4. What are the trade-offs between different integer sizes?
5. Why might string handling be more complex than it initially appears?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Understand Rust's immutability-by-default principle
• Use mutable variables when necessary
• Apply variable shadowing appropriately
• Choose appropriate numeric types for different use cases
• Work with boolean and bitwise operations
• Handle characters and strings properly in Rust
• Understand type conversion and casting in Rust

Variables are by default immutable!

Take a look at the following code.

Note: we'll use a red border to indicate that the code is expected to fail compilation.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = 3;
x = x + 1; // <== error here
}

Run it and you should get the following error.

   Compiling playground v0.0.1 (/playground)
error[E0384]: cannot assign twice to immutable variable `x`
 --> src/main.rs:4:1
  |
3 | let x = 3;
  |     - first assignment to `x`
4 | x = x + 1; // <== error here
  | ^^^^^^^^^ cannot assign twice to immutable variable
  |
help: consider making this binding mutable
  |
3 | let mut x = 3;
  |     +++

For more information about this error, try `rustc --explain E0384`.
error: could not compile `playground` (bin "playground") due to 1 previous error

The Rust compiler errors are quite helpful!

Use mut to make them mutable

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// mutable variable
let mut x = 3;
x = x + 1;
println!("x = {}", x);
}

Assigning a different type to a mutable variable

What happens if you try to assign a different type to a mutable variable?

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// mutable variable
let mut x = 3;
x = x + 1;
println!("x = {}", x);
x = 9.5;   // what happens here??
println!("x = {}", x);
}

Again, the Rust compiler error message is quite helpful!

Variable Shadowing

You can create a new variable with the same name as a previous variable!

fn main() {
let solution = "4";  // This is a string

// Create a new variable with same name and convert string to integer
let solution : i32 = solution.parse()
                     .expect("Not a number!");

// Create a third variable with the same name!
let solution = solution * (solution - 1) / 2;
println!("solution = {}",solution);

// Create a fourth variable with the same name!
let solution = "This is a string";
println!("solution = {}", solution);
}

In this example, you can't get back to the original variable, although it stays in memory until it goes of out scope.

Question: why would you want to do this?

Question: Can you use mut and avoid variable shadowing? Try it above.

Variable Shadowing and Scopes

Rust automatically deallocates variables when they go out of scope, such as when a program ends.

You can also use a block (bounded by {}) to limit the scope of a variable.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = 1;

{ // start of block scope

    let x = 2;  // shadows outer x
    println!("{}", x); // prints `2`

} // end of block scope

println!("{}", x);    // prints `1` again — outer `x` visible
}

Basic Types: unsigned integers

unsigned integers: u8, u16, u32, u64, u128

• usize is the default unsigned integer size for your architecture

The number, e.g. 8, represents the number of bits in the type and the maximum value.

• So unsigned integers range from $0$ to $2^n-1$.

Here's how you convert from binary to decimal.

$$b_0\times 2^0+b_1\times 2^1+b_2\times 2^2+b_3\times 2^3+\cdots +b_n\times 2^n$$

Basic Types: unsigned integers - min and max values

Rust lets us print the minimum and maximum values of each type.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
println!("U8 min is {} max is {}", u8::MIN, u8::MAX);
println!("U16 min is {} max is {}", u16::MIN, u16::MAX);
println!("U32 min is {} max is {}", u32::MIN, u32::MAX);
println!("U64 min is {} max is {}", u64::MIN, u64::MAX);
println!("U128 min is {} max is {}", u128::MIN, u128::MAX);
println!("USIZE min is {} max is {}", usize::MIN, usize::MAX);
}

Verify u8::MAX on your own.

Question: What is the usize on your machine?

Basic Types: signed integers

Similarly, there are these signed integer types.

signed integers: i8, i16, i32 (default), i64, i128,

isize is the default signed integer size for your architecture

• from $-2^{n-1}$ to $2^{n-1}-1$

Unsigned integers - min and max values

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
println!("I8 min is {} max is {}", i8::MIN, i8::MAX);
println!("I16 min is {} max is {}", i16::MIN, i16::MAX);
println!("I32 min is {} max is {}", i32::MIN, i32::MAX);
println!("I64 min is {} max is {}", i64::MIN, i64::MAX);
println!("I128 min is {} max is {}", i128::MIN, i128::MAX);
println!("ISIZE min is {} max is {}", isize::MIN, isize::MAX);
}

Signed integer representation

Signed integers are stored in two's complement format.

• if the number is positive, the first bit is 0
• if the number is negative, the first bit is 1

Here's how you convert from binary to decimal.

If the first bit is 0, the number is positive. If the first bit is 1, the number is negative.

To convert a negative number to decimal:

• take the sign of the first bit,
• flip all the bits and add 1 (only for negative numbers!)

Exercise: Try that for -1

Converting between signed and unsigned integers

If you need to convert, use the as operator:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x: i8 = -1;
let y: u8 = x as u8;
println!("{}", y);
}

Question: Can you explain the answer?

Why do we need ginormous i128 and u128?

They are useful for cryptography.

Don't use datatype sizes larger than you need.

Larger than architecture default generally takes more time.

i64 math operations might be twice as slow as i32 math.

Number literals

Rust lets us write number literals in a few different ways.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let s1 = 2_55_i32;
let s2 = 0xff;
let s3 = 0o3_77;
let s4 = 0b1111_1111;

// print in decimal format
println!("{} {} {} {}", s1, s2, s3, s4);

// print in different bases
println!("{} 0x{:X} 0o{:o} 0b{:b}", s1, s2, s3, s4);
}

Be careful with math on ints

fn main() {
let x : i16 = 13;
let y : i32 = -17;

// won't work without the conversion
println!("{}", x * y);   // will not work
//println!("{}", (x as i32)* y); // this will work
}

Basic Types: floats

There are two kinds: f32 and f64

What do these mean?

• This is the number of bits used in each type
• more complicated representation than ints (see wikipedia)
• There is talk about adding f128 to the language but it is not as useful as u128/i128.

fn main() {
let x = 4.0;
println!("x is of type {}", std::any::type_name_of_val(&x));

let z = 1.25;
println!("z is of type {}", std::any::type_name_of_val(&z));

println!("{:.1}", x * z);
}

Exercise: Try changing the type of x to f32 and see what happens: let x:f32 = 4.0;

Floats gotchas

Be careful with mixing f32 and f64 types.

You can't mix them without converting.

fn main() {
let x:f32 = 4.0;
println!("x is of type {}", std::any::type_name_of_val(&x));

let z:f64 = 1.25;
println!("z is of type {}", std::any::type_name_of_val(&z));


println!("{:.1}", x * z);

//println!("{:.1}", (x as f64) * z); // this will work
}

Floats: min and max values

Rust lets us print the minimum and maximum values of each type.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
println!("F32 min is {} max is {}", f32::MIN, f32::MAX);
println!("F32 min is {:e} max is {:e}\n", f32::MIN, f32::MAX);
println!("F64 min is {:e} max is {:e}", f64::MIN, f64::MAX);
}

Exercise -- Integers and Floats

Create a program that:

1. creates a u8 variable n with value 77
2. creates an f32 variable x with value 1.25
3. prints both numbers
4. multiplies them and puts the results in an f64 variable result
5. prints the result

Example output:

77
1.25
77 * 1.25 = 96.25

Get your code working here (or in your own editors) and then paste the result in Gradescope.

fn main() {

}

More Basic Types

Let's look at:

• Booleans
• Characters
• Strings

Logical operators and bool

• bool uses one byte of memory

Question: Why is bool one byte when all we need is one bit?

We can do logical operations on booleans.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = true;
println!("x uses {} bits", std::mem::size_of_val(&x) * 8);

let y: bool = false;
println!("y uses {} bits\n", std::mem::size_of_val(&y) * 8);

println!("{}", x && y); // logical and
println!("{}", x || y); // logical or
println!("{}", !y);    // logical not
}

Bitwise operators

There are also bitwise operators that look similar to logical operators but work on integers:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = 10;
let y = 7;

println!("{x:04b} & {y:04b} = {:04b}", x & y); // bitwise and
println!("{x:04b} | {y:04b} = {:04b}", x | y); // bitwise or
println!("!{y:04b} = {:04b} or {0}", !y); // bitwise not
}

Bitwise 'not' and signed integers

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let y = 7;

println!("!{y:04b} = {:04b} or {0}", !y); // bitwise not
}

What's going on with that last line?

y is I32, so let's display all 32 bits.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let y = 7;
println!("{:032b}", y);
}

So when we do !y we get the bitwise negation of y.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let y = 7;
println!("{:032b}", !y);
}

It's still interpreted as a signed integer.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let y = 7;
println!("{}", !y);
}

Bitwise Operators on Booleans?

It's a little sloppy but it works.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = true;
println!("x is of type {}", std::any::type_name_of_val(&x));
println!("x uses {} bits", std::mem::size_of_val(&x) * 8);

let y: bool = false;
println!("y uses {} bits\n", std::mem::size_of_val(&y) * 8);

// x and (not y)
println!("{}", x & y);  // bitwise and
println!("{}", x | y);  // bitwise or
println!("{}", x ^ y);  // bitwise xor
}

Exercise -- Bitwise Operators on Integers

Create a program that:

1. Creates an unsigned int x with value 12 and a signed int y with value -5
2. Prints both numbers in binary format (use {:08b} for 8-bit display)
3. Performs bitwise AND (&) and prints the result in binary
4. Performs bitwise OR (|) and prints the result in binary
5. Performs bitwise NOT (!) on both numbers and prints the results

Example output:

12: 00001100
-5: 11111011
12 & -5: 00001000
12 | -5: 11111101
!12: 11110011
!-5: 00000100

fn main() {

}

Characters

• char defined via single quote, uses four bytes of memory (Unicode scalar value)
• For a complete list of UTF-8 characters check https://www.fileformat.info/info/charset/UTF-8/list.htm

Note that on Mac, you can insert an emoji by typing Control-Command-Space and then typing the emoji name, e.g. 😜.

On Windows, you can insert an emoji by typing Windows-Key + . or Windows-Key + ; and then typing the emoji name, e.g. 😜.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x: char = 'a';
println!("x is of type {}", std::any::type_name_of_val(&x));
println!("x uses {} bits", std::mem::size_of_val(&x) * 8);

let y = '🚦';
println!("y is of type {}", std::any::type_name_of_val(&y));
println!("y uses {} bits", std::mem::size_of_val(&y) * 8);

let z = '🦕';
println!("z is of type {}", std::any::type_name_of_val(&z));
println!("z uses {} bits", std::mem::size_of_val(&z) * 8);

println!("{} {} {}", x, y, z);
}

Strings and String Slices (&str)

In Rust, strings are not primitive types, but rather complex types built on top of other types.

String slices are immutable references to string data.

• String is a growable, heap-allocated data structure

• &str is an immutable reference to a string slice

• String is a wrapper around Vec<u8> (More on Vec later)

• &str is a wrapper around &[u8]

• string slice defined via double quotes (not so basic actually!)

String and string slice examples

fn main() {
    let s1 = "Hello! How are you, 🦕?";  // type is immutable borrowed reference to a string slice: `&str`
    let s2 : &str = "Καλημέρα από την Βοστώνη και την DS210";  // here we make the type explicit
    
    println!("{}", s1);
    println!("{}\n", s2);
}

String and string slice examples

We have to explicitly convert a string slice to a string.

fn main() {

    // This doesn't work.  You can't do String = &str
    let s3: String = "Does this work?"; // <== error here
    
    let s3: String = "Does this work?".to_string();
    println!("{}", s3);
}

Comment out the error lines and run the code to see what happens.

String and string slice examples

We can't index directly into a string slice, because it is a complex data structure.

Different characters can take up different numbers of bytes in UTF-8.

fn main() {
    let s4: String = String::from("How about this?");
    println!("{}\n", s4);

    let s5: &str = &s3;
    println!("str reference to a String reference: {}\n", s5);
    
    // This won't work.  You can't index directly into a string slice. Why???
    println!("{}", s1[3]); // <== error here
    println!("{}", s2[3]); // <== error here

    // But you can index this way.
    println!("4th character of s1: {}", s1.chars().nth(3).unwrap());
    println!("4th character of s2: {}", s2.chars().nth(3).unwrap());
    println!("3rd character of s4: {}", s4.chars().nth(2).unwrap());
}

Comment out the error lines and run the code to see what happens.

Exercise -- String Slices

Create a program that:

1. Creates a string slice containing your name
2. Converts it to a String
3. Gets the third character of your name using the .chars().nth() method
4. Prints both the full name and the third character

Example output if your name is "Alice":

Alice
i

fn main() {


}

Recap

• Variables are by default immutable
• Use mut to make them mutable
• Variable shadowing is a way to reuse the same name for a new variable
• Booleans are one byte of memory
• Bitwise operators work on integers
• Characters are four bytes of memory
• Strings are complex data structures
• String slices are immutable references to string data

Conditional Expressions and Flow Control in Rust

About This Module

This module covers Rust's conditional expressions, including if statements, if expressions, and the unique ways Rust handles control flow. Understanding these concepts is fundamental for writing effective Rust programs and leveraging Rust's expression-based syntax.

Prework

Prework Readings

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 3.3: Functions
• Chapter 3.5: Control Flow

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. What is the difference between statements and expressions in programming?
2. How might expression-based syntax improve code readability and safety?
3. What are the advantages of mandatory braces in conditional statements?
4. How do different languages handle ternary operations?
5. What role does type consistency play in conditional expressions?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Use if statements for conditional execution
• Leverage if expressions to assign values conditionally
• Understand Rust's expression-based syntax
• Apply proper type consistency in conditional expressions
• Write clean, readable conditional code following Rust conventions
• Understand the differences between Rust and other languages' conditional syntax

An Aside -- Approach to Learning New Languages

Systematic Language Learning Framework:

When learning any new programming language, consider these key areas:

1. Data Types: What types of variables and data structures are available?
2. Functions: What is the syntax for defining and calling functions?
3. Build System: How do you compile and run code?
4. Control Flow: Syntax for conditionals, loops, and branching
5. Code Organization: How to structure programs (structs, modules, etc.)
6. Language-Specific Features: Unique aspects of the language
7. Additional Considerations: I/O, external libraries, ecosystem

Basic if Statements

Syntax:

if condition {
    DO-SOMETHING-HERE
} else {
    DO-SOMETHING-ELSE-HERE
}

• else part optional
• Compared to many C-like languages:
  • no parentheses around condition needed!
  • the braces mandatory

Example of if

Simple if statement.

fn main() {
    let x = 7;

    if x <= 15 {
        println!("x is not greater than 15");
    }
}

• parentheses optional around condition -- try it with!
• no semicolon after the if braces

fn main() {
    let threshold = 5;
    if x <= threshold {
        println!("x is at most {}",threshold);
    } else {
        println!("x is greater than {}", threshold);
    }
}

Using conditional expressions as values

In Python:

result = 100 if (x == 7) else 200 

C++:

result = (x == 7) ? 100 : 200

Rust:

fn main() {
    let x = 4;
    let result = if x == 7 {100} else {200};
    println!("{}",result);
}

fn main() {
// won't work: same type needed
    let x = 4;
    println!("{}",if x == 7 {100} else {1.2});
}

• blocks can be more complicated
• last expression counts (no semicolon after)
• But please don't write this just because you can

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = 4;
let z = if x == 4 {
    let t = x * x;
    t + 1
} else {
    x + 1
};
println!("{}",z);
}

Write this instead:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = 4;
let z;
if x == 4 { z = x*x+1 } else { z = x+1};
println!("{}", z)
}

Obscure Code Competition Winner

A winner of the most obscure code competition (https://www.ioccc.org/)

What does this program do?

#include <stdio.h> 

#define N(a)       "%"#a"$hhn"
#define O(a,b)     "%10$"#a"d"N(b)
#define U          "%10$.*37$d"
#define G(a)       "%"#a"$s"
#define H(a,b)     G(a)G(b)
#define T(a)       a a 
#define s(a)       T(a)T(a)
#define A(a)       s(a)T(a)a
#define n(a)       A(a)a
#define D(a)       n(a)A(a)
#define C(a)       D(a)a
#define R          C(C(N(12)G(12)))
#define o(a,b,c)   C(H(a,a))D(G(a))C(H(b,b)G(b))n(G(b))O(32,c)R
#define SS         O(78,55)R "\n\033[2J\n%26$s";
#define E(a,b,c,d) H(a,b)G(c)O(253,11)R G(11)O(255,11)R H(11,d)N(d)O(253,35)R
#define S(a,b)     O(254,11)H(a,b)N(68)R G(68)O(255,68)N(12)H(12,68)G(67)N(67)

char* fmt = O(10,39)N(40)N(41)N(42)N(43)N(66)N(69)N(24)O(22,65)O(5,70)O(8,44)N(
            45)N(46)N    (47)N(48)N(    49)N( 50)N(     51)N(52)N(53    )O( 28,
            54)O(5,        55) O(2,    56)O(3,57)O(      4,58 )O(13,    73)O(4,
            71 )N(   72)O   (20,59    )N(60)N(61)N(       62)N (63)N    (64)R R
            E(1,2,   3,13   )E(4,    5,6,13)E(7,8,9        ,13)E(1,4    ,7,13)E
            (2,5,8,        13)E(    3,6,9,13)E(1,5,         9,13)E(3    ,5,7,13
            )E(14,15,    16,23)    E(17,18,19,23)E(          20, 21,    22,23)E
            (14,17,20,23)E(15,    18,21,23)E(16,19,    22     ,23)E(    14, 18,
            22,23)E(16,18,20,    23)R U O(255 ,38)R    G (     38)O(    255,36)
            R H(13,23)O(255,    11)R H(11,36) O(254    ,36)     R G(    36 ) O(
            255,36)R S(1,14    )S(2,15)S(3, 16)S(4,    17 )S     (5,    18)S(6,
            19)S(7,20)S(8,    21)S(9    ,22)H(13,23    )H(36,     67    )N(11)R
            G(11)""O(255,    25 )R        s(C(G(11)    ))n (G(          11) )G(
            11)N(54)R C(    "aa")   s(A(   G(25)))T    (G(25))N         (69)R o
            (14,1,26)o(    15, 2,   27)o   (16,3,28    )o( 17,4,        29)o(18
            ,5,30)o(19    ,6,31)o(        20,7,32)o    (21,8,33)o       (22 ,9,
            34)n(C(U)    )N( 68)R H(    36,13)G(23)    N(11)R C(D(      G(11)))
            D(G(11))G(68)N(68)R G(68)O(49,35)R H(13,23)G(67)N(11)R C(H(11,11)G(
            11))A(G(11))C(H(36,36)G(36))s(G(36))O(32,58)R C(D(G(36)))A(G(36))SS

#define arg d+6,d+8,d+10,d+12,d+14,d+16,d+18,d+20,d+22,0,d+46,d+52,d+48,d+24,d\
            +26,d+28,d+30,d+32,d+34,d+36,d+38,d+40,d+50,(scanf(d+126,d+4),d+(6\
            -2)+18*(1-d[2]%2)+d[4]*2),d,d+66,d+68,d+70, d+78,d+80,d+82,d+90,d+\
            92,d+94,d+97,d+54,d[2],d+2,d+71,d+77,d+83,d+89,d+95,d+72,d+73,d+74\
            ,d+75,d+76,d+84,d+85,d+86,d+87,d+88,d+100,d+101,d+96,d+102,d+99,d+\
            67,d+69,d+79,d+81,d+91,d+93,d+98,d+103,d+58,d+60,d+98,d+126,d+127,\
            d+128,d+129

char d[538] = {1,0,10,0,10};

int main() {
    while(*d) printf(fmt, arg);
}

Best Practices

Formatting and Style:

1. Use consistent indentation (4 spaces)
2. Keep conditions readable - use parentheses for clarity when needed
3. Prefer early returns in functions to reduce nesting
4. Use else if for multiple conditions rather than nested if

Example of Good Style:

fn classify_temperature(temp: f64) -> &'static str {
    if temp > 30.0 {
        "Hot"
    } else if temp > 20.0 {
        "Warm"
    } else if temp > 10.0 {
        "Cool"
    } else {
        "Cold"
    }
}

fn main() {
    println!("{}", classify_temperature(35.0));
    println!("{}", classify_temperature(25.0));
    println!("{}", classify_temperature(15.0));
    println!("{}", classify_temperature(5.0));
}

Exercise

Write a function that takes a number and returns a string that says whether it is positive, negative, or zero.

Example output:

10 is positive
-5 is negative
0 is zero

// Your code here

Functions in Rust

About This Module

This module covers Rust function syntax, return values, parameters, and the unit type. Functions are fundamental building blocks in Rust programming, and understanding their syntax and behavior is essential for writing well-structured Rust programs.

Prework

Prework Readings

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 3.3: Functions
• Chapter 4.1: What Is Ownership? - Introduction only

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. How do functions help organize and structure code?
2. What are the benefits of explicit type annotations in function signatures?
3. How do return values differ from side effects in functions?
4. What is the difference between expressions and statements in function bodies?
5. How might Rust's approach to functions differ from other languages you know?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Define functions with proper Rust syntax
• Understand parameter types and return type annotations
• Use both explicit return statements and implicit returns
• Work with functions that return no value (unit type)
• Apply best practices for function design and readability
• Understand the difference between expressions and statements in function bodies

Function Syntax

Syntax:

fn function_name(argname_1:type_1,argname_2:type_2) -> type_ret {
    DO-SOMETHING-HERE-AND-RETURN-A-VALUE
}

• No need to write "return x * y"
• Last expression is returned
• No semicolon after the last expression

fn multiply(x:i32, y:i32) -> i32 {
    // note: no need to write "return x * y"
    x * y
}

fn main() {
    println!("{}", multiply(10,20))
}

Exercise: Try putting a semicolon after the last expression. What happens?

Functions returns

• But if you add a return then you need a semicolon
  • unless it is the last statement in the function
• Recommend using returns and add semicolons everywhere.
  • It's easier to read.

fn and(p:bool, q:bool, r:bool) -> bool {
    if !p {
        println!("p is false");
        return false;
    }
    if !q {
        println!("q is false");
        return false;
    }
    println!("r is {}", r);
    r // return r without the semicolon also works here
}

fn main() {
    println!("{}", and(true,false,true))
}

Functions: returning no value

How: skip the type of returned value part

fn say_hello(who:&str) {
    println!("Hello, {}!",who);
}

fn main() {
    say_hello("world");
    say_hello("Boston");
    say_hello("DS210");
}

Nothing returned equivalent to the unit type, ()

fn say_good_night(who:&str) -> () {
    println!("Good night {}",who);
}

fn main() {
    say_good_night("room");
    say_good_night("moon");
    let z = say_good_night("cow jumping over the moon");
    println!("The function returned {:?}", z)
}

Unit Type Characteristics:

• Empty tuple: ()
• Zero size: Takes no memory
• Default return: When no value is explicitly returned
• Side effects only: Functions that only perform actions (printing, file I/O, etc.)

Parameter Handling

Multiple Parameters:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn calculate_area(length: f64, width: f64) -> f64 {
    length * width
}

fn greet_person(first_name: &str, last_name: &str, age: u32) {
    println!("Hello, {} {}! You are {} years old.", 
             first_name, last_name, age);
}
}

Parameter Types:

• Ownership: Parameters can take ownership (String)
• References: Parameters can borrow (&str, &i32)
• Primitive types: Copied by default (i32, bool, f64)

Function Design Principles

Single Responsibility:

// Good: Single purpose
fn calculate_tax(price: f64, tax_rate: f64) -> f64 {
    price * tax_rate
}

// Good: Clear separation of concerns
fn format_currency(amount: f64) -> String {
    format!("${:.2}", amount)
}

fn display_total(subtotal: f64, tax_rate: f64) {
    let tax = calculate_tax(subtotal, tax_rate);
    let total = subtotal + tax;
    println!("Total: {}", format_currency(total));
}

fn main() {
    display_total(100.0, 0.08);
}

Pure Functions vs. Side Effects:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Pure function: No side effects, deterministic
fn add(x: i32, y: i32) -> i32 {
    x + y
}

// Function with side effects: Prints to console
fn add_and_print(x: i32, y: i32) -> i32 {
    let result = x + y;
    println!("{} + {} = {}", x, y, result);
    result
}
}

Common Patterns

Validation Functions:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn is_valid_age(age: i32) -> bool {
    age >= 0 && age <= 150
}

fn is_valid_email(email: &str) -> bool {
    email.contains('@') && email.contains('.')
}
}

Conversion Functions:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn celsius_to_fahrenheit(celsius: f64) -> f64 {
    celsius * 9.0 / 5.0 + 32.0
}

fn fahrenheit_to_celsius(fahrenheit: f64) -> f64 {
    (fahrenheit - 32.0) * 5.0 / 9.0
}
}

Helper Functions:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn get_absolute_value(x: i32) -> i32 {
    if x < 0 { -x } else { x }
}

fn max_of_three(a: i32, b: i32, c: i32) -> i32 {
    if a >= b && a >= c {
        a
    } else if b >= c {
        b
    } else {
        c
    }
}
}

Function Naming Conventions

Rust Naming Guidelines:

• snake_case: For function names
• Descriptive names: Clear indication of purpose
• Verb phrases: For functions that perform actions
• Predicate functions: Start with is_, has_, can_

Examples:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn calculate_distance(x1: f64, y1: f64, x2: f64, y2: f64) -> f64 { /* ... */ }
fn is_prime(n: u32) -> bool { /* ... */ }
fn has_permission(user: &str, resource: &str) -> bool { /* ... */ }
fn can_access(user_level: u32, required_level: u32) -> bool { /* ... */ }
}

Exercise

Write a function called greet_user that takes a name and a time of day (morning, afternoon, evening) as parameters and returns an appropriate greeting string.

The function should:

1. Take two parameters: name: &str and time: &str
2. Return a String with a customized greeting
3. Follow Rust naming conventions
4. Use proper parameter types
5. Include error handling for invalid times

Example output:

Good evening, Dumbledore!

Hint: You can format the string using the format! macro, which uses the same syntax as println!.

// Returns a String
format!("Good morning, {}!", name)

// Your code here

Loops and Arrays in Rust

About This Module

This module covers Rust's loop constructs (for, while, loop) and array data structures. Understanding loops and arrays is essential for processing collections of data and implementing algorithms in Rust.

Prework

Prework Readings

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 3.5: Control Flow - Focus on loops
• Chapter 4.1: What Is Ownership? - Arrays and ownership
• Chapter 8.1: Storing Lists of Values with Vectors - Introduction only

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. What are the different types of loops and when would you use each?
2. How do arrays differ from more flexible data structures like vectors?
3. What are the advantages of fixed-size arrays?
4. How do ranges work in iteration and what are their bounds?
5. When might you need labeled breaks and continues in nested loops?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Use for loops with ranges and collections
• Work with while loops for conditional iteration
• Understand loop for infinite loops with explicit breaks
• Create and manipulate arrays in Rust
• Use break and continue statements effectively
• Apply loop labels for complex control flow
• Understand array properties and limitations

For Loops and Ranges

Loops: for

Usage: loop over a range or collection

A range is (start..end), e.g. (1..5), where the index will vary as

$$\text{start}\le \text{index}<\text{end}.$$

Unless you use the notation (start..=end), in which case the index will vary as

$$\text{start}\le \text{index}\le \text{end}$$

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// parentheses on the range are optional unless calling a method e.g. `.rev()`
// on the range
for i in 1..5 {
    println!("{}",i);
}
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// inclusive range
for i in 1..=5 {
    println!("{}",i);
}
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// reverse order. we need parentheses!
for i in (1..5).rev() {
    println!("{}",i)
}
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// every other element 
for i in (1..5).step_by(2) {
    println!("{}",i);
}
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
println!("And now for the reverse");
for i in (1..5).step_by(2).rev() {
    println!("{}",i)
}
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
println!("But....");
for i in (1..5).rev().step_by(2) {
    println!("{}",i);
}
}

Arrays and for over an array

• Arrays in Rust are of fixed length (we'll learn about more flexible Vec later)
• All elements of the same type
• You can not add or remove elements from an array (but you can change its value)
• Python does not have arrays natively.

What's the closest thing in native python?

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// simplest definition
// compiler guessing element type to be i32
// indexing starts at 0
let mut arr = [1,7,2,5,2];
arr[1] = 13;
println!("{} {}",arr[0],arr[1]);
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut arr = [1,7,2,5,2];
// array supports sorting
arr.sort();

// loop over the array
for x in arr {
    println!("{}",x);
}
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// create array of given length
// and fill it with a specific value
let arr2 = [15;3];
for x in arr2 {
    print!("{} ",x);  // notice print! instead of println!
}
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// with type definition and shorthand to repeat values
let arr3 : [u8;3] = [15;3];

for x in arr3 {
    print!("{} ",x);
}
println!();

println!("arr3[2] is {}", arr3[2]);
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let arr3 : [u8;3] = [15;3];
// get the length
println!("{}",arr3.len())
}

Loops: while

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut number = 3;

while number != 0 {
    println!("{number}!");
    number -= 1;
}
println!("LIFT OFF!!!");

}

Infinite loop: loop

loop {
    // DO SOMETHING HERE
}

Need to use break to jump out of the loop!

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut x = 1;
loop {
    if (x + 1) * (x + 1) >= 250 {break;}
    x += 1;
}
println!("{}",x)
}

• loop can return a value!
• break can act like return

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut x = 1;
let y = loop {
    if x * x >= 250 {break x - 1;}
    x += 1;
};
println!("{}",y)
}

• continue to skip the rest of the loop body and start the next iteration

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// loop keyword similar to while (True) in Python
// break and continue keywords behave as you would expect
let mut x = 1;

let result = loop {  // you can capture a return value
    if x == 5 {
        x = x+1;
        continue;    // skip the rest of this loop body and start the next iteration
    }
    println!("X is {}", x);
    x = x + 1;
    if x==10 {
        break x*2;   // break with a return value
    }
};

println!("Result is {}", result);
}

Advanced break and continue

• work in all loops
• break: terminate the execution
  • can return a value in loop
• continue: terminate this iteration and jump to the next one
  • in while, the condition will be checked
  • in for, there may be no next iteration
  • break and continue can use labels

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
for i in 1..=10 {
    if i % 3 != 0 {continue;}
    println!("{}",i);
};
}

You can also label loops to target with continue and break.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut x = 1;
'outer_loop: loop {
    println!("Hi outer loop");
    'inner_loop: loop {
        println!("Hi inner loop");
        x = x + 1;
        if x % 3 != 0 {
            continue 'outer_loop;  // skip the rest of the outer loop body and start the next iteration
        }
        println!("In the middle");
        if x >= 10 {
            break 'outer_loop;  // break the outer loop
        }
        println!("X is {}", x);
    }
    println!("In the end");
};

println!("Managed to escape! :-) with x {}", x);
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut x = 1;
'outer_loop: loop {
    println!("Hi outer loop");
    'inner_loop: loop {
        println!("Hi inner loop");
        x = x + 1;
        if x % 3 != 0 {
            break 'inner_loop;  // break the inner loop, continue the outer loop
        }
        println!("In the middle");
        if x >= 10 {
            break 'outer_loop;  // break the outer loop
        }
        println!("X is {}", x);
    }
    println!("In the end");
};
println!("Managed to escape! :-) with x {}", x);
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = 'outer_loop: loop {
    loop { break 'outer_loop 1234;}
};
println!("{}",x);
}

Loop Selection Guidelines

When to Use Each Loop Type:

For Loops:

• Known range: Iterating over ranges or collections
• Collection processing: Working with arrays, vectors, etc.
• Counter-based iteration: When you need an index

While Loops:

• Condition-based: Continue until some condition changes
• Unknown iteration count: Don't know how many times to loop
• Input validation: Keep asking until valid input

Loop (Infinite):

• Event loops: Server applications, game loops
• Breaking on complex conditions: When simple while condition isn't sufficient
• Returning values: When loop needs to compute and return a result

Exercise

Here's an exam question from a previous semester. Analyze the code without any assistance to practice your skills for the next exam.

You are given the following Rust code

let mut x = 1;
'outer_loop: loop {
    'inner_loop: loop {
        x = x + 1;
        if x % 4 != 0 {
            continue 'outer_loop;
        }
        if x > 11 {
            break 'outer_loop;
        }
    }
};
println!("Managed to escape! :-) with x {}", x);

What is the value of x printed by the println! statement at the end?

Explain your answer.

Tuples in Rust

About This Module

This module covers Rust's tuple data structure, which allows grouping multiple values of different types into a single compound value. Tuples are fundamental for returning multiple values from functions and organizing related data.

Prework

Prework Readings

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 3.2: Data Types - Focus on tuples subsection
• Chapter 6: Enums and Pattern Matching - Overview only
• Chapter 18.3: Pattern Syntax - Introduction only

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. What advantages do tuples provide over separate variables?
2. How might tuples be useful for function return values?
3. What are the trade-offs between tuples and structs?
4. How does pattern matching with tuples improve code readability?
5. When would you choose tuples versus arrays for grouping data?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Create and use tuples with different data types
• Access tuple elements using indexing and destructuring
• Apply pattern matching with tuples
• Use tuples for multiple return values from functions
• Understand when to use tuples versus other data structures
• Work with nested tuples and complex tuple patterns

What Are Tuples?

A general-purpose data structure that can hold multiple values of different types.

• Syntax: (value_1,value_2,value_3)
• Type: (type_1,type_2,type_3)

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut tuple = (1,1.1);
let mut tuple2: (i32,f64) = (1,1.1);  // type annotation is optional in this case

println!("tuple: {:?}, tuple2: {:?}", tuple, tuple2);
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let another = ("abc","def","ghi");
println!("another: {:?}", another);
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let yet_another: (u8,u32) = (255,4_000_000_000);
println!("yet_another: {:?}", yet_another);
}

Aside: Debug formatting

Look carefully at the variable formatting:

fn main() {
let student = ("Alice", 88.5, 92.0, 85.5);
println!("student: {:?}", student);
//                  ^^
}

Rust uses the {:?} format specifier to print the variable in a debug format.

We'll talk more about what this means, but for now, just know that's often a good tool to use when debugging.

Accessing Tuple Elements

There are two ways to access tuple elements:

1. Accessing elements via index (0 based)

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut tuple = (1,1.1);
println!("({}, {})", tuple.0, tuple.1);

tuple.0 = 2;

println!("({}, {})",tuple.0,tuple.1);

println!("Tuple is {:?}", tuple);
}

2. Pattern matching and deconstructing

fn main() {
let tuple = (1,1.1);
let (a, b) = tuple;
println!("a = {}, b = {}",a,b);
}

Best Practices

When to Use Tuples:

• Small, related data: 2-4 related values
• Temporary grouping: Short-lived data combinations
• Function returns: Multiple return values
• Pattern matching: When destructuring is useful

When to Avoid Tuples:

• Many elements: More than 4-5 elements becomes unwieldy
• Complex data: When you need named fields for clarity
• Long-term storage: When data structure will evolve

Style Guidelines:

// Good: Clear, concise
let (width, height) = get_dimensions();

// Good: Descriptive destructuring
let (min_temp, max_temp, avg_temp) = analyze_temperatures(&data);

// Avoid: Too many elements
// let config = (true, false, 42, 3.14, "test", 100, false);  // Hard to read

// Avoid: Unclear meaning
// let data = (42, 13);  // What do these numbers represent?

In-Class Exercise

Exercise: Student Grade Tracker

Create a program that tracks student information and calculates grade statistics. Work through the following steps:

1. Create a tuple to store a student's name (String) and three test scores (f64, f64, f64)

2. Calculate the average of the three test scores and create a new tuple that includes the student's name and average grade

3. Use pattern matching to destructure and display the student's name and average in a readable format

4. Bonus: Create multiple student tuples and use pattern matching to find students with averages above 85.0

fn main() {
    // Step 1: Create a student tuple (name, score1, score2, score3)
    let student1 = ...
    
    // Step 2: Deconstruct the tuple into separate variables
    let ...

    // Step 2: Calculate average and create new tuple (name, average)
    let average = ...
    let student_grade = ...
    
    // Step 3: Deconstruct student_grade into variables 
    // student_name and avg_grade
    let ...
    println!("Student: {}, Average: {:.1}", student_name, avg_grade);
    
}

Expected Output:

Student: Alice, Average: 88.7

Recap

• Tuples are a general-purpose data structure that can hold multiple values of different types
• We can access tuple elements via index or by pattern matching and deconstructing
• Pattern matching is a powerful tool for working with tuples
• Tuples are often used for multiple return values from functions

Enums and Pattern Matching in Rust

About This Module

This module introduces Rust's enum (enumeration) types and pattern matching with match and if let. Enums allow you to define custom types by enumerating possible variants, and pattern matching provides powerful control flow based on enum values.

Prework

Prework Readings

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 6.1: Defining an Enum
• Chapter 6.2: The match Control Flow Construct
• Chapter 6.3: Concise Control Flow with if let

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. How do enums help make code more expressive and type-safe?
2. What advantages does pattern matching provide over traditional if-else chains?
3. How might enums be useful for error handling in programs?
4. What is the difference between enums in Rust and in other languages you know?
5. When would you use match versus if let for pattern matching?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Define custom enum types with variants
• Create instances of enum variants
• Use match expressions for exhaustive pattern matching
• Apply if let for simplified pattern matching
• Store data in enum variants
• Understand memory layout of enums
• Use the #[derive(Debug)] attribute for enum display

Enums

enum is short for "enumeration" and allows you to define a type by enumerating its possible variants.

The type you define can only take on one of the variants you have defined.

Allows you to encode meaning along with data.

Pattern matching using match and if let allows you to run different code depending on the value of the enum.

Python doesn't have native support for enum, but it does have an enum module that let's do something similar by subclassing an Enum class.

Basic Enums

Let's start with a simple example:

// define the enum and its variants
enum Direction {
    North,   // <---- enum _variant_
    East,
    South,
    West,
    SouthWest,
}

fn main() {
    // create instances of the enum variants
    let dir_1 = Direction::North;   // dir is inferred to be of type Direction
    let dir_2: Direction = Direction::South; // dir_2 is explicitly of type Direction
}

The enum declaration is defining our new type, so now a type called Direction is in scope, similar to i32, f64, bool, etc., but it instances can only be one of the variants we have defined.

The let declarations are creating instances of the Direction type.

Aside: Rust Naming Conventions

Rust has a set of naming conventions that are used to make the code more readable and consistent.

You should follow these conventions when naming your enums, variants, functions, and other items in your code.

Using "use" as a shortcut

You can bring the variants into scope using use statements.

// define the enum and its variants
enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
    SouthWest,
}

// Bring the variant `East` into scope
use Direction::East;

fn main() {
    // we didn't have to specify "Direction::"
    let dir_3 = East;
}

Using "use" as a shortcut

You can bring multiple variants into scope using use statements.

// define the enum and its variants
enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
    SouthWest,
}

// Bringing two options into the current scope
use Direction::{East,West};

fn main() {
    let dir_4 = West;
}

Using "use" as a shortcut

You can bring all the variants into scope using use statements.

enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

// Bringing all options in
use Direction::*;

fn main() {
let dir_5 = South;
}

Question: Why might we not always want to bring all the variants into scope?

Name clashes

use <enum_name>::*; will bring all the variants into scope, but if you have a variable with the same name as a variant, it will clash.

Uncomment the use Prohibited::*; line to see the error.

enum Prohibited {
    MyVar,
    YourVar,
}

// what happens if we bring all the variants into scope?
// use Prohibited::*;

fn main() {
    let MyVar = "my string";

    let another_var = Prohibited::MyVar;

    println!("{MyVar}");
}

Aside: Quick Recap on Member Access

Different data structures have different ways of accessing their members.

fn main() {
    // Accessing an element of an array
    let arr = [1, 2, 3];
    println!("{}", arr[0]);

    // Accessing an element of a tuple
    let tuple = (1, 2, 3);
    println!("{}", tuple.0);
    let (a, b, c) = tuple;
    println!("{}, {}, {}", a, b, c);

    // Accessing a variant of an enum
    enum Direction {
        North,
        East,
        South,
        West,
    }
    let dir = Direction::East;
}

Using enums as parameters

We can also define a function that takes our new type as an argument.

enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

fn turn(dir: Direction) { return; } // this function doesn't do anything

fn main() {
    let dir = Direction::East;
    turn(dir);
}

Control Flow with match

Enums: Control Flow with match

The match statement is used to control flow based on the value of an enum.

enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

fn main() {
    let dir = Direction::East;

    // print the direction
    match dir {
        Direction::North => println!("N"),
        Direction::South => println!("S"),
        Direction::West => {  // can do more than one thing
            println!("Go west!");
            println!("W")
        }
        Direction::East => println!("E"),
    };
}

Take a close look at the match syntax.

Covering all variants with match

match is exhaustive, so we must cover all the variants.

// Won't compile

enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

fn main() {
    let dir_2: Direction = Direction::South;

    // won't work 
    match dir_2 {
        Direction::North => println!("N"),
        Direction::South => println!("S"),
        // East and West not covered
    };
}

But there is a way to match anything left.

Covering all variants with match

There's a special pattern, _, that matches anything.

enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

fn main() {
    let dir_2: Direction = Direction::North;

    match dir_2 {
        Direction::North => println!("N"),
        Direction::South => println!("S"),

        // match anything left
        _ => (),  // covers all the other variants but doesn't do anything
    }
}

Covering all variants with match

WARNING!!

The _ pattern has to be the last pattern in the match statement.

enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

fn main() {
    let dir_2: Direction = Direction::North;

    match dir_2 {
        _ => println!("anything else"),

        // will never get here!!
        Direction::North => println!("N"),
        Direction::South => println!("S"),
    }
}

Recap of match

• Type of a switch statement like in C/C++ (Python doesn't have an equivalent)
• Must be exhaustive though there is a way to specify default (_ =>)

Putting Data in an Enum Variant

• Each variant can come with additional information
• Let's put a few things together with an example

#[derive(Debug)]   // allows us to print the enum by having Rust automatically
                   // implement a Debug trait (more later)
enum DivisionResult {
    Ok(f32),    // This variant has an associated value of type f32
    DivisionByZero,
}

// Return a DivisionResult that handles the case where the division is by zero. 
fn divide(x:f32, y:f32) -> DivisionResult {
    if y == 0.0 {
        return DivisionResult::DivisionByZero;
    } else {
        return DivisionResult::Ok(x / y); // Prove a value with the variant
    }
}

fn show_result(result: DivisionResult) {
    match result {
        DivisionResult::Ok(result) => println!("the result is {}",result),
        DivisionResult::DivisionByZero => println!("noooooo!!!!"),
    }
}

fn main() {
    let (a,b) = (9.0,3.0);  // this is just short hand for let a = 9.0; let b = 3.0;

    println!("Dividing 9 by 3:");
    show_result(divide(a,b));

    println!("Dividing 6 by 0:");
    show_result(divide(6.0,0.0));

    // we can also call `divide`, store the result and print it
    let z = divide(5.0, 4.0);
    println!("The result of 5.0 / 4.0 is {:?}", z);
}

Variants with multiple values

We can have more than one associated value in a variant.

enum DivisionResultWithRemainder {
    Ok(u32,u32),  // Store the result of the integer division and the remainder
    DivisionByZero,
}

fn divide_with_remainder(x:u32, y:u32) -> DivisionResultWithRemainder {
    if y == 0 {
        DivisionResultWithRemainder::DivisionByZero
    } else {
        // Return the integer division and the remainder
        DivisionResultWithRemainder::Ok(x / y, x % y) 
    }
}

fn main() {
    let (a,b) = (9,4);

    println!("Dividing 9 by 4:");
    match divide_with_remainder(a,b) {
        DivisionResultWithRemainder::Ok(result,remainder) => {
                println!("the result is {} with a remainder of {}",result,remainder);
        }
        DivisionResultWithRemainder::DivisionByZero
            => println!("noooooo!!!!"),
    };
}

Getting the value out of an enum variant

We can use match to get the value out of an enum variant.

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Message {
    Quit,
    Move { x: i32, y: i32 },
    Write(String),
    ChangeColor(i32, i32, i32),
}

fn main() {
    let msg = Message::Write(String::from("Hello, world!"));
    
    // Extract values using match
    match msg {
        Message::Quit => println!("Quit message"),
        Message::Move { x, y } => println!("Move to ({}, {})", x, y),
        Message::Write(text) => println!("Write: {}", text),
        Message::ChangeColor(r, g, b) => println!("Color: RGB({}, {}, {})", r, g, b),
    }
    
    // Using if let for single variant extraction
    let msg2 = Message::Move { x: 10, y: 20 };
    if let Message::Move { x, y } = msg2 {
        println!("Extracted coordinates: x={}, y={}", x, y);
    }
}

A Note on the Memory Size of Enums

The size of the enum is related to the size of its largest variant, not the sum of the sizes.

Also stores a discriminant (tag) to identify which variant is stored.

use std::mem;

enum SuperSimpleEnum {
    First,
    Second,
    Third
}

enum SimpleEnum {
    A,           // No data
    B(i32),      // Contains an i32 (4 bytes)
    C(i32, i32), // Contains two i32s (8 bytes)
    D(i64)       // Contains an i64 (8 bytes)
}

fn main() {
    println!("Size of SuperSimpleEnum: {} bytes\n", mem::size_of::<SuperSimpleEnum>());

    println!("Size of SimpleEnum: {} bytes\n", mem::size_of::<SimpleEnum>());
    println!("Size of i32: {} bytes", mem::size_of::<i32>());
    println!("Size of (i32, i32): {} bytes", mem::size_of::<(i32, i32)>());
    println!("Size of (i64): {} bytes", mem::size_of::<(i64)>());
}

For variant C, it's possible that the compiler is aligning each i32 on an 8-byte boundary, so the total size is 16 bytes. Common for modern 64-bit machines.

More on memory size of enums

use std::mem::size_of;

enum Message {
    Quit,
    ChangeColor(u8, u8, u8),
    Move { x: i32, y: i32 },
    Write(String),
}

enum Status {
    Pending,
    InProgress,
    Completed,
    Failed,
}

fn main() {
    // General case (on a 64-bit machine)
    println!("Size of Message: {} bytes", size_of::<Message>());

    // C-like enum
    println!("Size of Status: {} bytes", size_of::<Status>()); // Prints 1

    // References are addresses which are 64-bit (8 bytes)
    println!("Size of &i32: {} bytes", size_of::<&i32>()); // Prints 8
}

Displaying enums

By default Rust doesn't know how to display a new enum type.

Here we try to debug print the Direction enum.

// won't compile

enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

fn main() {
    let dir = Direction::North;
    println!("{:?}",dir);
}

Displaying enums (#[derive(Debug)])

Adding the #[derive(Debug)] attribute to the enum definition allows Rust to automatically implement the Debug trait.

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

use Direction::*;

fn main() {
    let dir = Direction::North;
    println!("{:?}",dir);
}

match as expression

The result of a match can be used as an expression.

Each branch (arm) returns a value.

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

use Direction::*;

fn main() {
    // swap east and west
    let mut dir_4 = North;
    println!("{:?}", dir_4);

    dir_4 = match dir_4 {
        East => West,
        West => {
            println!("Switching West to East");
            East
        }
        // variable mathching anything else
        _ => West,
    };

    println!("{:?}", dir_4);
}

Simplifying matching

Consider the following example (in which we want to use just one branch):

#[derive(Debug)]
enum DivisionResult {
    Ok(u32,u32),
    DivisionByZero,
}

fn divide(x:u32, y:u32) -> DivisionResult {
    if y == 0 {
        DivisionResult::DivisionByZero
    } else {
        DivisionResult::Ok(x / y, x % y)
    }
}

fn main() {
    match divide(8,3) {
        DivisionResult::Ok(result,remainder) => 
            println!("{} (remainder {})",result,remainder),
        _ => (), // <--- how to avoid this?
    };
}

This is a common enough pattern that Rust provides a shortcut for it.

Simplified matching with if let

if let allows for matching just one branch (arm)

#[derive(Debug)]
enum DivisionResult {
    Ok(u32,u32),
    DivisionByZero,
}

fn divide(x:u32, y:u32) -> DivisionResult {
    if y == 0 {
        DivisionResult::DivisionByZero
    } else {
        DivisionResult::Ok(x / y, x % y)
    }
}

fn main() {
    if let DivisionResult::Ok(result,reminder) = divide(8,7) { 
        println!("{} (remainder {})",result,reminder);
    };
}

Simplified matching with if let

Caution!

The single = is both an assignment and a pattern matching operator.

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

use Direction::*;

fn main() {
    let dir = North;
    if let North = dir {
            println!("North");
        }
}

if let with else

You can use else to match anything else.

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

use Direction::*;

fn main() {
    let dir = North;
    if let West = dir {
        println!("North");
    } else {
        println!("Something else");
    };
}

Enum variant goes on the left side

Caution!

You don't get a compile error, you get different behavior!

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

use Direction::*;

fn main() {
    let dir = North;

    // But it is important to have the enum
    // on the left hand side
    // if let West = dir {
    if let dir = West {
        println!("West");
    } else {
        println!("Something else");
    };
}

Single = for pattern matching

Remember to use the single = for pattern matching, not the double == for equality.

#[derive(Debug)]
enum Direction {
    North,
    East,
    South,
    West,
}

use Direction::*;

fn main() {
    let dir = North;

    // Don't do this.
    if let North == dir {
        println!("North");
    }
}

Best Practices

When to Use Enums:

• State representation: Modeling different states of a system
• Error handling: Representing success/failure with associated data
• Variant data: When you need a type that can be one of several things
• API design: Making invalid states unrepresentable

Design Guidelines:

• Use descriptive names: Make variants self-documenting
• Leverage associated data: Store relevant information with variants
• Prefer exhaustive matching: Avoid catch-all patterns when possible
• Use if let for single variant: When you only care about one case

In-Class Activity: "Traffic Light State Machine"

Activity Overview

Work in snall teams to create a simple traffic light system using enums and pattern matching.

Activity Instructions

You're given a TrafficLight enum.

Task:

• Create a function next_light that takes a TrafficLight and returns the next state in the sequence: Red → Green(30) → Yellow(5) → Red(45) with the seconds remaining till the next light.
• Create a function get_light_color that takes a reference to a TrafficLight (&TrafficLight) and returns a string slice representation (&str) of the current light state
• Create a function get_time_remaining that takes a reference to a TrafficLight (&TrafficLight) and returns the time remaining till the next light as a u32
• Call next_light, and print the light color and the time remaining till the next light.
• Repeat this process 3 times.

#![allow(unused_variables)]
#![allow(dead_code)]

#[derive(Debug)]
enum TrafficLight {
    Red(u32),    // seconds remaining
    Yellow(u32), // seconds remaining  
    Green(u32),  // seconds remaining
}

// Your code here

Discussion Points

• How do we get the value out of the enum variants?
• How do we match on the enum variants?

A1 Midterm 1 Review

Table of Contents:

• Revision 1 Changes
• Reminders about the exam
• Development Tools
• Shell/Terminal Commands
• Git Commands
• Cargo Commands
• Quick Questions: Tools
• Rust Core Concepts
• Variables and Types
• String vs &str
• Quick Questions: Rust basics
• Functions
• Loops and Arrays
• Enums and Pattern Matching
• Midterm Strategy

Revision 1 Posted Oct 7.

Changes:

• Enabled Rust playground for all code blocks
• In Loops and Arrays, modified what is not important and important
• Deleted quesiton 15 about Some(x) and renumbered remaining questions
• Updated code slightly in new question number 16

Reminders about the exam

• Practice exam posted on Piazza
• Up to 5 pages of notes, double sided, any font size
• No electronic devices
• Bring a pencil!
• Spread out -- don't sit beside or in front or behind anyone

Development Tools

Shell/Terminal Commands

For the midterm, you should recognize and recall:

• pwd - where am I?
• ls - what's here?
• ls -la - more info and hidden files
• mkdir folder_name - make a folder
• cd folder_name - move into a folder
• cd .. - move up to a parent folder
• cd ~ - return to the home directory
• rm filename - delete a file

You DON'T need to: Memorize complex command flags or advanced shell scripting

Git Commands

For the midterm, you should recognize and recall:

• git clone - get a repository, pasting in the HTTPS or SSH link
• git status - see what's changed
• git log - see the commit history
• git branch - list all branches
• git checkout branch_name - switch to a different branch
• git checkout -b new_branch - create a branch called new_branch and switch to it
• git add . - stage all recent changes
• git commit -m "my commit message" - create a commit with staged changes
• git push - send what's on my machine to GitHub
• git pull - get changes from GitHub to my machine
• git merge branch_name - merge branch branch_name into the current branch

You DON'T need to: revert, reset, resolving merge conflicts, pull requests

Cargo Commands

For the midterm, you should recognize and recall:

• cargo new project_name - create project
• cargo run - compile and run
• cargo run --release - compile and run with optimizations (slower to compile, faster to run)
• cargo build - just compile without running
• cargo check - just check for errors without compiling
• cargo test - run tests

You DON'T need to know: Cargo.toml syntax, how Cargo.lock works, advanced cargo features

Quick Questions: Tools

Question 1

Which command shows your current location on your machine?

Question 2

What's the correct order for the basic Git workflow?

• A) add → commit → push
• B) commit → add → push
• C) push → add → commit
• D) add → push → commit

Question 3

Which cargo command compiles your code without running it?

Rust Core Concepts

Compilers vs Interpreters

Key Concepts

• Compiled languages (like Rust): Code is transformed into machine code before running
• Interpreted languages (like Python): Code is executed line-by-line at runtime
• The compiler checks your code for errors and translates it into machine code
• The machine code is directly executed by your computer - it isn't Rust anymore!
• A compiler error means your code failed to translate into machine code
• A runtime error means your machine code crashed while running

Rust prevents runtime errors by being strict at compile time!

Variables and Types

Key Concepts

• Defining variables: let x = 5;
• Mutability: Variables are immutable by default, use let mut to allow them to change
• Shadowing: let x = x + 1; creates a new x value without mut and lets you change types
• Basic types: i32, f64, bool, char, &str, String
• Rough variable sizes: Eg. i32 takes up 32-bits of space and its largest positive value is about half of u32's largest value
• Type annotations: Rust infers types (let x = 5) or you can specify them (let x: i32 = 5)
• Tuples: Creating (let x = (2,"hi")), accessing (let y = x.0 + 1), destructuring (let (a,b) = x)
• Arrays: Creating (let x = [1,2,3]), accessing (let y = x[1])
• Accessing and indexing elements of arrays, tuples and enums.

What's Not Important

• Calculating exact variable sizes and max values
• 2's complement notation for negative integers
• Complex string manipulation details

String vs &str

Quick explanation

• String = a string = owned text data (like a text file you own)
• &str = a "string slice = borrowed text data (like looking at someone else's text)
• A string literal like "hello" is a &str (you don't own it, it's baked into your program)
• To convert from an &str to a String, use "hello".to_string() or String::from("hello")
• To convert from a String to an &str, use &my_string (to create a "reference")

Don't stress! You can do most things with either one, and we won't make you do anything crazy with these.

Quick Questions: Rust basics

Question 4

What happens with this code?

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = 5;
x = 10;
println!("{}", x);
}

• A) Prints 5
• B) Prints 10
• C) Compiler error
• D) Runtime error

Question 5

What's the type of x after this code?

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = 5;
let x = x as f64;
let x = x > 3.0;
}

• A) i32
• B) f64
• C) bool
• D) Compiler error

Question 6

How do you access the second element of tuple t = (1, 2, 3)?

• A) t[1]
• B) t.1
• C) t.2
• D) t(2)

Functions

Key Concepts

• Function signature: fn name(param1: type1, param2: type2) -> return_type, returned value must match return_type
• Expressions and statements: Expressions reduce to values (no semicolon), statements take actions (end with semicolon)
• Returning with return or an expression: Ending a function with return x; and x are equivalent
• {} blocks are scopes and expressions: They reduce to the value of the last expression inside them
• Unit type: Functions without a return type return ()
• Best practices: Keep functions small and single-purpose, name them with verbs

What's Not Important

• Ownership/borrowing mechanics (we'll cover this after the midterm)
• Advanced function patterns

Quick Questions: Functions

Question 7

What is the value of mystery(x)?

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn mystery(x: i32) -> i32 {
    x + 5;
}
let x = 1;
mystery(x)
}

• A) 6
• B) i32
• C) ()
• D) Compiler error

Question 8

Which is a correct function signature for a function that takes two integers and returns their sum?

Question 9

Which version will compile

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Version A
fn func_a() {
    42
}

// Version B
fn func_b() {
    42;
}
}

• A) A
• B) B
• C) Both
• D) Neither

Question 10

What does this print?

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = println!("hello");
println!("{:?}", x);
}

• A) hello \n hello
• B) hello \n ()
• C) hello
• D) ()
• E) Compiler error
• F) Runtime error

Loops and Arrays

Key Concepts

• Ranges: 1..5 vs 1..=5
• Arrays: Creating ([5,6] vs [5;6]), accessing (x[i]), 0-indexing
• If/else: how to write if / else blocks with correct syntax
• Loop types: for, while, loop - how and when to use each
• break and continue: For controlling loop flow
• Basic enumerating for (i, val) in x.iter().enumerate()
• Compact notation (let x = if y ... or let y = loop {...)
• Labeled loops, breaking out of an outer loop

What's Not Important

• Enumerating over a string array with for (i, &item) in x.iter().enumerate()

Quick Questions: Loops & Arrays

Question 11

What's the difference between 1..5 and 1..=5?

Question 12

What does this print?

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
for i in 0..3 {
    if i == 1 { continue; }
    println!("{}", i);
}
}

Question 13

How do you get both index and value when looping over an array?

Enums and Pattern Matching

Key Concepts

• Enum definition: Creating custom types with variants
• Data in variants: Enums can hold data
• match expressions: syntax by hand, needs to be exhaustive, how to use a catch-all (_)
• #[derive(Debug)]: For making enums printable
• Data extraction: Getting values out of enum variants with match, unwrap, or expect

Quick Questions: Enums & Match

Question 14

What's wrong with this code?

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
enum Status {
    Loading,
    Complete,
    Error,
}

let stat = Status::Loading;

match stat {
    Status::Loading => println!("Loading..."),
    Status::Complete => println!("Done!"),
}
}

Question 15

What does #[derive(Debug)] do?

Question 16

What does this return when called with divide_with_remainder(10, 2)?

How about with divide_with_remainder(10, 0)?

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
enum MyResult {
    Ok(u32,u32),  // Store the result of the integer division and the remainder
    DivisionByZero,
}
fn divide_with_remainder(a: u32, b: u32) -> MyResult {
    if b == 0 {
        MyResult::DivisionByZero
    } else {
        MyResult::Ok(a / b, a % b)
    }
}
}

Midterm Strategy

• Focus on concepts: Understand the "why" behind the syntax and it will be easier to remember
• Practice with your hands: Literally and figuratively - practice solving problems, and practice on paper
• Take bigger problems step-by-step: Understand each line of code before reading the next. And make a plan before you start to hand-code

Good Luck!

Structs in Rust

About This Module

This module introduces Rust's struct (structure) types, which allow you to create custom data types by grouping related values together with named fields. Structs provide more semantic meaning than tuples by giving names to data fields and are fundamental for building complex data models.

Prework

Prework Readings

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 5: Structs Introduction
• Chapter 5.1: Defining and Instantiating Structs
• Chapter 5.2: An Example Program Using Structs

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. How do structs provide more semantic meaning than tuples?
2. What are the advantages of named fields over positional access?
3. How do tuple structs combine benefits of both tuples and structs?
4. When would you choose structs over other data structures?
5. How do structs help with type safety and preventing logical errors?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Define and instantiate regular structs with named fields
• Create and use tuple structs for type safety
• Access and modify struct fields
• Use struct update syntax for efficient instantiation
• Understand when to use structs vs. tuples vs. other data types
• Apply structs in enum variants for complex data modeling
• Design data structures using struct composition

What Are Structs?

Definition:

A struct (structure) is a custom data type that lets you name and package together multiple related values. Unlike tuples, structs give meaningful names to each piece of data.

Key Benefits:

• Semantic meaning: Named fields make code self-documenting
• Type safety: Prevent mixing up different types of data
• Organization: Group related data logically
• Maintainability: Changes are easier when fields have names

Structs

Previously we saw tuples, e.g., (12, 1.7, true), where we can mix different types of data.

Structs compared to tuples:

• Similar: can hold items of different types
• Different: the items have names

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Definition: list items (called fields)
//             and their types

struct Person {
    name: String,
    year_born: u16,
    time_100m: f64,
    likes_ice_cream: bool,
}
}

Struct Instantiation

• Replace types with values

struct Person {
    name: String,
    year_born: u16,
    time_100m: f64,
    likes_ice_cream: bool,
}

fn main() {
    let mut cartoon_character: Person = Person {
        name: String::from("Tasmanian Devil"),
        year_born: 1954,
        time_100m: 7.52,
        likes_ice_cream: true,
    };
}

Struct Field Access

• Use "." to access fields

struct Person {
    name: String,
    year_born: u16,
    time_100m: f64,
    likes_ice_cream: bool,
}

fn main() {
    let mut cartoon_character: Person = Person {
        name: String::from("Tasmanian Devil"),
        year_born: 1954,
        time_100m: 7.52,
        likes_ice_cream: true,
    };

    // Accessing fields: use ".field_name"
    println!("{} was born in {}", 
        cartoon_character.name, cartoon_character.year_born);
    
    cartoon_character.year_born = 2022;
    println!("{} was born in {}",
        cartoon_character.name, cartoon_character.year_born);
}

Challenge: How would we update the last println! statement to print
Tasmanian Devil was born in 2022, can run a mile in 7.52 seconds and likes ice cream ?

Tuple Structs

Example: The tuple (f64,f64,f64) could represent:

• box size (e.g., height $\times$ width $\times$ depth)
• Euclidean coordinates of a point in 3D

We can use tuple structs to give a name to a tuple and make it more meaningful.

fn main() {
    struct BoxSize(f64,f64,f64);
    struct Point3D(f64,f64,f64);

    let mut my_box = BoxSize(3.2,6.0,2.0);
    let mut p : Point3D = Point3D(-1.3,2.1,0.0);
}

Tuple Structs, cont.

• Impossible to accidentally confuse different types of triples.
• No runtime penalty! Verified at compilation.

fn main() {
    struct BoxSize(f64,f64,f64);
    struct Point3D(f64,f64,f64);

    let mut my_box = BoxSize(3.2,6.0,2.0);
    let mut p : Point3D = Point3D(-1.3,2.1,0.0);

    // won't work
    my_box = p;
}

Tuple Structs, cont.

• Acessing via index
• Destructuring

fn main() {
    struct Point3D(f64,f64,f64);

    let mut p : Point3D = Point3D(-1.3,2.1,0.0);

    // Acessing via index
    println!("{} {} {}",p.0,p.1,p.2);
    p.0 = 17.2;

    // Destructuring
    let Point3D(first,second,third) = p;
    println!("{} {} {}", first, second, third);
}

Named structs in enums

Structs with braces and exchangable with tuples in many places

enum LPSolution {
    None,
    Point{x:f64,y:f64}
}

fn main() {
    let example = LPSolution::Point{x:1.2, y:4.2};

    if let LPSolution::Point{x:first,y:second} = example {
        println!("coordinates: {} {}", first, second);
    };
}

How is that different from enum variants with values?

enum LPSolution2 {
    None,
    Point(f64,f64)
}

fn main() {
    let example = LPSolution2::Point(1.2, 4.2);

    if let LPSolution2::Point(first,second) = example {
        println!("coordinates: {} {}", first, second);
    };
}

Recap and Next Steps

Recap

• Structs are a way to group related data together
• Tuple structs are a way to give a name to a tuple
• Named structs in enums are a way to group related data together
• Structs are critical to Rust's OO capabilities

Next Steps

• We will see how connect structs to methods (e.g. functions)
• Important step towards Object-Oriented style of programming in Rust

Method Syntax

About This Module

This module introduces method syntax in Rust, which brings aspects of object-oriented programming to the language by combining properties and methods in one object. You'll learn how methods are functions defined within the context of a struct and how to use impl blocks to define methods.

Prework

Prework Readings

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 5.3: Method Syntax

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. How do methods differ from regular functions in Rust?
2. What is the significance of the self parameter in method definitions?
3. When would you choose to use associated functions vs. methods?
4. How do methods help with code organization and encapsulation?
5. What are the benefits of the impl block approach compared to other languages?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Define methods within impl blocks for structs
• Understand the role of self in method definitions
• Create associated functions that don't take self
• Use methods to encapsulate behavior with data
• Apply method syntax for cleaner, more readable code

Method Syntax Overview

Brings aspects of object-oriented programming to Rust: combine properties and methods in one object.

Methods are functions that are defined within the context of a struct.

The first parameter is always self, which refers to the instance of the struct the method is being called on.

Use and impl (implementation) block on the struct to define methods.

struct Point {  // stores x and y coordinates
    x: f64,
    y: f64,
}

struct Rectangle {  // store upper left and lower right points
    p1: Point,
    p2: Point,
}

impl Rectangle {
    // This is a method
    fn area(&self) -> f64 {
        // `self` gives access to the struct fields via the dot operator
        let Point { x: x1, y: y1 } = self.p1;
        let Point { x: x2, y: y2 } = self.p2;

        // `abs` is a `f64` method that returns the absolute value of the
        // caller
        ((x1 - x2) * (y1 - y2)).abs()
    }

    fn perimeter(&self) -> f64 {
        let Point { x: x1, y: y1 } = self.p1;
        let Point { x: x2, y: y2 } = self.p2;

        2.0 * ((x1 - x2).abs() + (y1 - y2).abs())
    }
}

fn main() {
    let rectangle = Rectangle {
        p1: Point{x:0.0, y:0.0},
        p2: Point{x:3.0, y:4.0},
    };

    println!("Rectangle perimeter: {}", rectangle.perimeter());
    println!("Rectangle area: {}", rectangle.area());
}

Associated Functions without self parameter

Useful as constructors.

You can have more than one impl block on the same struct.

struct Point {  // stores x and y coordinates
    x: f64,
    y: f64,
}

struct Rectangle {  // store upper left and lower right points
    p1: Point,
    p2: Point,
}

impl Rectangle {
    // This is a method
    fn area(&self) -> f64 {
        // `self` gives access to the struct fields via the dot operator
        let Point { x: x1, y: y1 } = self.p1;
        let Point { x: x2, y: y2 } = self.p2;

        // `abs` is a `f64` method that returns the absolute value of the
        // caller
        ((x1 - x2) * (y1 - y2)).abs()
    }

    fn perimeter(&self) -> f64 {
        let Point { x: x1, y: y1 } = self.p1;
        let Point { x: x2, y: y2 } = self.p2;

        2.0 * ((x1 - x2).abs() + (y1 - y2).abs())
    }
}

impl Rectangle {
    fn new(p1: Point, p2: Point) -> Rectangle {
        Rectangle { p1, p2 }  // instantiate a Rectangle struct and return it
    }
}

fn main() {
    // instantiate a Rectangle struct and return it
    let rect = Rectangle::new(Point{x:0.0, y:0.0}, Point{x:3.0, y:4.0});  
    println!("Rectangle area: {}", rect.area());
}

Common Patterns

Builder Pattern with Structs:

struct Config {
    host: String,
    port: u16,
    debug: bool,
    timeout: u32,
}

impl Config {
    fn new() -> Self {
        Config {
            host: String::from("localhost"),
            port: 8080,
            debug: false,
            timeout: 30,
        }
    }
    
    fn with_host(mut self, host: &str) -> Self {
        self.host = String::from(host);
        self
    }
    
    fn with_debug(mut self, debug: bool) -> Self {
        self.debug = debug;
        self
    }
}

fn main() {
    // Usage
    let config = Config::new()
            .with_host("api.example.com")
            .with_debug(true);
}

Methods Continued

About This Module

This module revisits and expands on method syntax in Rust, focusing on different types of self parameters and their implications for ownership and borrowing. You'll learn the differences between self, &self, and &mut self, and when to use each approach for method design.

Prework

Prework Readings

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 5.3: Method Syntax - Review
• Chapter 4.2: References and Borrowing - Focus on method calls

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. What are the implications of using self vs &self vs &mut self in method signatures?
2. How does method call syntax relate to function call syntax with explicit references?
3. When would you design a method to take ownership of self?
4. How do method calls interact with Rust's borrowing rules?
5. What are the trade-offs between different self parameter types?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Distinguish between self, &self, and &mut self parameter types
• Understand when methods take ownership vs. borrow references
• Design method APIs that appropriately handle ownership and mutability
• Apply method call syntax with different reference types
• Recognize the implications of different self parameter choices

Method Review

We saw these in the previous lecture.

• We can add functions that are directly associated with structs and enums!
  • Then we could call them: road.display() or road.update_speed(25)
• How?
  • Put them in the namespace of the type
  • make self the first argument

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Road {
    intersection_1: u32,
    intersection_2: u32,
    max_speed: u32,
}

impl Road {
    
    // constructor
    fn new(i1:u32,i2:u32,speed:u32) -> Road {
        Road {
            intersection_1: i1,
            intersection_2: i2,
            max_speed: speed,
        }
    }
    // note &self: immutable reference
    fn display(&self) {
        println!("{:?}",*self);
    }
}

// You can invoke the display method on the road instance
// or on a reference to the road instance.

fn main() {
    let mut road = Road::new(1,2,35);

    road.display();
    &road.display();
    (&road).display();
}

In C++ the syntax is different. It would be something like:

road.display();

(&road)->display();

Method with immutable self reference

Rember that self is a reference to the instance of the struct.

By default, self is an immutable reference, so we can't modify the struct.

The following will cause a compiler error.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
struct Road {
    intersection_1: u32,
    intersection_2: u32,
    max_speed: u32,
}

// ERROR
impl Road {
    fn update_speed(&self, new_speed:u32) {
        self.max_speed = new_speed;
    }
}
}

Method with mutable self reference

Let's change it to a mutable reference.

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Road {
    intersection_1: u32,
    intersection_2: u32,
    max_speed: u32,
}

impl Road {
    // constructor
    fn new(i1:u32,i2:u32,speed:u32) -> Road {
        Road {
            intersection_1: i1,
            intersection_2: i2,
            max_speed: speed,
        }
    }

    // note &self: immutable reference
    fn display(&self) {
        println!("{:?}",*self);
    }

    fn update_speed(&mut self, new_speed:u32) {
        self.max_speed = new_speed;
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mut road = Road::new(1,2,35);

    road.display();
    road.update_speed(45);
    road.display();
}

Methods that take ownership of self

There are some gotchas to be aware of.

Consider the following code:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Road {
    intersection_1: u32,
    intersection_2: u32,
    max_speed: u32,
}

impl Road {
    
    fn this_will_move(self) -> Road {   // this will take ownership of the instance of Road
        self
    }
    
    fn this_will_not_move(&self) -> &Road {  // this will _not_ take ownership of the instance of Road
        self
    }
}
}

We'll talk about ownership and borrowing in more detail later.

Methods that borrow self

Let's experiment a bit.

#![allow(unused_variables)]

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Road {
    intersection_1: u32,
    intersection_2: u32,
    max_speed: u32,
}

impl Road {
    // constructor
    fn new(i1:u32,i2:u32,speed:u32) -> Road {
        Road {
            intersection_1: i1,
            intersection_2: i2,
            max_speed: speed,
        }
    }

    // note &self: immutable reference
    fn display(&self) {
        println!("{:?}",*self);
    }

    fn update_speed(&mut self, new_speed:u32) {
        self.max_speed = new_speed;
    }

    fn this_will_move(self) -> Road {   // this will take ownership of the instance of Road
        self
    }
    
    fn this_will_not_move(&self) -> &Road {
        self
    }
}

fn main() {
  let r = Road::new(1,2,35);       // create a new instance of Road, r
  let r3 = r.this_will_not_move(); // create a new reference to r, r3

  // run the code with the following line commented, then try uncommenting it
  //let r2 = r.this_will_move();  // this will take ownership of r

  r.display();

  // r2.display();
  r3.display();
}

Methods (summary)

• Make first parameter self
• Various options:
  • self: move will occur
  • &self: self will be immutable reference
  • &mut self: self will be mutable reference

In-Class Poll

A1 Piazza Poll:

Select ALL statements below that are true. Multiple answers may be correct.

• Structs can hold items of different types, similar to tuples
• Tuple structs provide type safety by preventing confusion between different tuple types
• Methods with &self allow you to modify the struct's fields
• You can have multiple impl blocks for the same struct
• Associated functions without self are commonly used as constructors
• Enum variants can contain named struct-like data using curly braces {}
• Methods are called using :: syntax, like rectangle::area()

In-Class Activity

Coding Exercise: Student Grade Tracker (15 minutes)

Objective: Practice defining structs and implementing methods with different types of self parameters.

Scenario: You're building a simple grade tracking system for a course. Create a Student struct and implement various methods to manage student information and grades.

You can work in teams of 2-3 students. Suggest cargo new grades-struct to create a new project and then work in VS Code.

Copy your answer into Gradescope.

Part 1: Define the Struct (3 minutes)

Create a Student struct with the following fields:

• name: String (student's name)
• id: u32 (student ID number)
• grades: [f64; 5] (array of up to 5 grades)
• num_grades: usize (number of grades added)

Part 2: Implement Methods (10 minutes)

Implement the following methods in an impl block:

1. Constructor (associated function):

   • new(name: String, id: u32) -> Student
   • Creates a new student with grades initialized to [0.0; 5] and num_grades set to 0

2. Immutable reference methods (&self):

   • display(&self) - debug prints the Student struct
   • average_grade(&self) -> f64 - returns average grade
   • Optional: get_letter_grade(&self) -> Option<char> - returns 'A' (≥90), 'B' (≥80), 'C' (≥70), 'D' (≥60), or 'F' (<60)

3. Mutable reference methods (&mut self):

   • add_grade(&mut self, grade: f64) - adds a grade to the student's record

Part 3: Test Your Implementation (2 minutes)

Write a main function that creates a new student.

We provide code to:

• Add several grades
• Displays the student info, average and letter grade

Expected Output Example:

Student { name: "Alice Smith", id: 12345, grades: [85.5, 92.0, 78.5, 88.0, 0.0], num_grades: 4 }
Average grade: 86
Letter grade: B

Starter Code:

#![allow(unused)]

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Student {
    // TODO: Add fields
}

impl Student {
    // TODO: Implement methods
}

fn main() {
    let mut student = ...  // TODO: Create a new student

    // Add several grades
    student.add_grade(85.5);
    student.add_grade(92.0);
    student.add_grade(78.5);
    student.add_grade(88.0);

    // Display initial information
    student.display();
    println!();
}

Ownership and Borrowing in Rust

Introduction

• Rust's most distinctive feature: ownership system
• Enables memory safety without garbage collection
• Compile-time guarantees with zero runtime cost
• Three key concepts: ownership, borrowing, and lifetimes

Prework

Prework Readings

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 4: Understanding Ownership - All sections

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. What problems does Rust's ownership system solve compared to manual memory management?
2. How does ownership differ from garbage collection in other languages?
3. What is the difference between moving and borrowing a value?
4. When would you use Box<T> instead of storing data on the stack?
5. How do mutable and immutable references help prevent data races?

Memory Layout: Stack vs Heap

Stack:

• Fast, fixed-size allocation
• LIFO (Last In, First Out) structure
• Stores data with known, fixed size at compile time
• Examples: integers, booleans, fixed-size arrays

Heap:

• Slower, dynamic allocation
• For data with unknown or variable size
• Allocator finds space and returns a pointer
• Examples: String, Vec, Box

Stack Memory Example

fn main() {
    let x = 5;           // stored on stack
    let y = true;        // stored on stack
    let z = x;           // copy of value on stack
    println!("{}, {}", x, z);  // both still valid
}

• Simple types implement Copy trait
• Assignment creates a copy, both variables remain valid

String and the Heap

Heap Memory: The String Type

Let's look more closely at the String type.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let s1 = String::from("hello");
}

• String stores pointer, length, capacity on stack
• Actual string data stored on heap

In fact we can inspect the memory layout of a String:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut s = String::from("hello");

println!("&s:{:p}", &s);
println!("ptr: {:p}", s.as_ptr());
println!("len: {}", s.len());
println!("capacity: {}\n", s.capacity());

// Let's add some more text to the string
s.push_str(", world!");
println!("&s:{:p}", &s);
println!("ptr: {:p}", s.as_ptr());
println!("len: {}", s.len());
println!("capacity: {}", s.capacity());
}

Shallow Copy with Move

fn main() {
    let s1 = String::from("hello");
    // s1 has three parts on stack:
    // - pointer to heap data
    // - length: 5
    // - capacity: 5
    
    let s2 = s1;  // shallow copy of stack data

    println!("{}", s1);  // ERROR! s1 is no longer valid
    println!("{}", s2);     // OK
}

• String stores pointer, length, capacity on stack
• Actual string data stored on heap

Shallow Copy:

• Copying the pointer, length, and capacity
• The actual string data is not copied
• The owner of the string data is transferred to the new structure

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let s1 = String::from("hello");

println!("&s1:{:p}", &s1);
println!("ptr: {:p}", s1.as_ptr());
println!("len: {}", s1.len());
println!("capacity: {}\n", s1.capacity());

let s2 = s1;

println!("&s2:{:p}", &s2);
println!("ptr: {:p}", s2.as_ptr());
println!("len: {}", s2.len());
println!("capacity: {}", s2.capacity());
}

The Ownership Rules

1. Each value in Rust has an owner
2. There can only be one owner at a time
3. When the owner goes out of scope, the value is dropped

These rules prevent:

• Double free errors
• Use after free
• Data races

Ownership Transfer: Move Semantics

fn main() {
    let s1 = String::from("hello");
    let s2 = s1;  // ownership moves from s1 to s2
    
    // s1 is now invalid - compile error if used
    println!("{}", s2);  // OK
    
    // When s2 goes out of scope, memory is freed
}

• Move prevents double-free
• Only one owner can free the memory

Clone: Deep Copy

fn main() {
    let s1 = String::from("hello");
    let s2 = s1.clone();  // deep copy of heap data
    
    println!("s1 = {}, s2 = {}", s1, s2);  // both valid
}

• clone() creates a full copy of heap data
• Both variables are independent owners
• More expensive operation

Vec and the Heap

Vec: Dynamic Arrays on the Heap

What is Vec?

• Vec<T> is Rust's growable, heap-allocated array type
• Generic over type T (e.g., Vec<i32>, Vec<String>)
• Contiguous memory allocation for cache efficiency
• Automatically manages capacity and growth

Three ways to create a Vec:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// 1. Empty vector with type annotation
let v1: Vec<i32> = Vec::new();

// 2. Using vec! macro with initial values
let v2 = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];

// 3. With pre-allocated capacity
let v3: Vec<i32> = Vec::with_capacity(10);
}

Vec Memory Structure

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut v = Vec::new();
v.push(1);
v.push(2);
v.push(3);
    
// Vec structure (on stack):
// - pointer to heap buffer
// - length: 3 (number of elements)
// - capacity: (at least 3, often more)

println!("&v:{:p}", &v);
println!("ptr: {:p}", v.as_ptr());
println!("Length: {}", v.len());
println!("Capacity: {}", v.capacity());

}

• Pointer: points to heap-allocated buffer
• Length: number of initialized elements
• Capacity: total space available before reallocation

Vec Growth and Reallocation

fn main() {
    let mut v = Vec::new();
    println!("Initial capacity: {}", v.capacity());  // 0
    
    v.push(1);
    println!("After 1 push: {}", v.capacity());      // typically 4
    
    v.push(2);
    v.push(3);
    v.push(4);
    v.push(5);  // triggers reallocation
    println!("After 5 pushes: {}", v.capacity());    // typically 8
}

• Capacity doubles when full (amortized O(1) push)
• Reallocation: new buffer allocated, old data copied
• Pre-allocate with with_capacity() to avoid reallocations

Accessing Vec Elements

fn main() {
    let v = vec![10, 20, 30, 40, 50];
    
    // Indexing - panics if out of bounds
    let third = v[2];
    println!("Third element: {}", third);
    
    // Using get() - returns Option<T>
    // Safely handles out of bounds indices
    match v.get(2) {
        Some(value) => println!("Third element: {}", value),
        None => println!("No element at index 2"),
    }
}

Option<T>

Option<T> is an enum that can be either Some(T) or None.

Defined in the standard library as:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
enum Option<T> {
    Some(T),
    None,
}
}

Let's you handle the case where there is no return value.

fn main() {
    let v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
    match v.get(0) {
        Some(value) => println!("Element: {}", value),
        None => println!("No element at index"),
    }
}

Modifying Vec Elements

fn main() {
    let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
    
    // Direct indexing for modification
    v[0] = 10;
    
    // Adding elements
    v.push(6);           // add to end
    
    // Removing elements
    let last = v.pop();  // remove from end, returns Option<T>
    
    // Insert/remove at position
    v.insert(2, 99);     // insert 99 at index 2
    v.remove(1);         // remove element at index 1
    
    println!("{:?}", v);
}

Vec Ownership

fn main() {
    let v1 = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
    let v2 = v1;  // ownership moves
    
    // println!("{:?}", v1);  // ERROR!
    println!("{:?}", v2);     // OK
    
    let v3 = v2.clone();      // deep copy
    println!("{:?}, {:?}", v2, v3);  // both OK
}

• Vec follows same ownership rules as String
• Move transfers ownership of heap allocation

Functions and Ownership

Functions and Ownership

fn takes_ownership(s: String) {
    println!("{}", s);
}  // s is dropped here

fn main() {
    let s = String::from("hello");
    takes_ownership(s);
    // println!("{}", s);  // ERROR! s was moved
}

• Passing to function transfers ownership
• Original variable becomes invalid

Returning Ownership

fn gives_ownership(s: String) -> String {
    let new_s = s + " world";
    new_s  // ownership moves to caller
}

fn main() {
    let s1 = String::from("hello");
    let s2 = gives_ownership(s1);
    println!("{}", s2);  // OK
}

• Return value transfers ownership out of function
• Caller becomes new owner

References: Borrowing Without Ownership

fn main() {
    let s1 = String::from("hello");
    let len = calculate_length(&s1);  // borrow with &
    
    println!("'{}' has length {}", s1, len);  // s1 still valid!
}

fn calculate_length(s: &String) -> usize {
    s.len()
}  // s goes out of scope, but doesn't own data

• & creates a reference (borrow)
• Original owner retains ownership
• Reference allows reading data

Immutable References

fn main() {
    let s = String::from("hello");
    
    let r1 = &s;  // immutable reference
    let r2 = &s;  // another immutable reference
    let r3 = &s;  // yet another
    
    println!("{}, {}, {}", r1, r2, r3);  // all valid

    // Let's take a look at the memory layout
    println!("&s: {:p}, s.as_ptr(): {:p}", &s, s.as_ptr());
    println!("&r1: {:p}, r1.as_ptr(): {:p}", &r1, r1.as_ptr());
    println!("&r2: {:p}, r2.as_ptr(): {:p}", &r2, r2.as_ptr());
    println!("&r3: {:p}, r3.as_ptr(): {:p}", &r3, r3.as_ptr());
}

• Multiple immutable references allowed simultaneously
• Cannot modify through immutable reference

// ERROR
fn main() {
    let s = String::from("hello");
    change(&s);
    println!("{}", s);
}

fn change(s: &String) {
    s.push_str(", world");
}

Mutable References

fn main() {
    let mut s = String::from("hello");
    
    change(&mut s);  // mutable reference with &mut
    println!("{}", s);  // prints "hello, world"
}

fn change(s: &mut String) {
    s.push_str(", world");
}

• &mut creates mutable reference
• Allows modification of borrowed data

Mutable Reference Restrictions

fn main() {
    let mut s = String::from("hello");
    
    let r1 = &mut s;
    let r2 = &mut s;  // ERROR! Only one mutable reference
    
    println!("{}", r1);
}

• Only ONE mutable reference at a time
• Prevents data races at compile time
• No simultaneous readers when there's a writer

Mixing References: Not Allowed

fn main() {
    let mut s = String::from("hello");
    
    let r1 = &s;      // immutable
    let r2 = &s;      // immutable
    let r3 = &mut s;  // ERROR! Can't have mutable with immutable
    
    println!("{}, {}", r1, r2);
}

• Cannot have mutable reference while immutable references exist
• Immutable references expect data won't change

Reference Scopes and Non-Lexical Lifetimes

fn main() {
    let mut s = String::from("hello");
    
    let r1 = &s;
    let r2 = &s;
    println!("{}, {}", r1, r2);
    // r1 and r2 no longer used after this point
    
    let r3 = &mut s;  // OK! Previous references out of scope
    println!("{}", r3);
}

• Reference scope: from introduction to last use, rather than lexical scope (till end of block)
• Non-lexical lifetimes allow more flexible borrowing

Vec with References

fn main() {
    let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
    
    let first = &v[0];  // immutable borrow
    
    // v.push(6);  // ERROR! Can't mutate while borrowed
    
    println!("First element: {}", first);
    
    v.push(6);  // OK now, first is out of scope
}

• Borrowing elements prevents mutation of Vec
• Protects against invalidation (reallocation)

Function Calls: Move vs Reference vs Mutable Reference

fn process_string(s: String) { }         // takes ownership (move)
fn read_string(s: &String) { }           // immutable borrow
fn modify_string(s: &mut String) { }     // mutable borrow

fn main() {
    let mut s = String::from("hello");
    
    read_string(&s);        // borrow
    modify_string(&mut s);  // mutable borrow
    read_string(&s);        // borrow again
    process_string(s);      // move
    // s is now invalid
}

Method Calls with Different Receivers

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
impl String {
    // Takes ownership: self
    fn into_bytes(self) -> Vec<u8> { /* ... */ }
    
    // Immutable borrow: &self
    fn len(&self) -> usize { /* ... */ }
    
    // Mutable borrow: &mut self
    fn push_str(&mut self, s: &str) { /* ... */ }
}
}

• self: method takes ownership (consuming)
• &self: method borrows immutably
• &mut self: method borrows mutably

Method Call Examples

• It can be difficult to understand which ownership rules are being applied to a method call.

fn main() {
    let mut s = String::from("hello");
    
    let len = s.len();           // &self - immutable borrow
    println!("{}, length: {}", s, len);

    s.push_str(" world 🌎");        // &mut self - mutable borrow
    let len = s.len();          // &self - immutable borrow
    println!("{}, length: {}", s, len);
    
    let bytes = s.into_bytes();  // self - takes ownership
    // s is now invalid
    println!("{:?}", bytes);

    let t = String::from_utf8(bytes).unwrap();
    println!("{}", t);
}

Vec Method Patterns

fn main() {
    let mut v = vec![1, 2, 3];
    
    v.push(4);              // &mut self
    let last = v.pop();     // &mut self, returns Option<T>
    let len = v.len();      // &self
    
    // Immutable iteration
    // What happens if you take away the &?
    for item in &v {        // iterate with &Vec
        println!("{}", item);
    }
    
    // Mutable iteration
    for item in &mut v {    // iterate with &mut Vec
        *item *= 2;
        println!("{}", item);
    }
    println!("{:?}", v);

    // Taking ownership
    for item in v {
        println!("{}", item);
    }
    //println!("{:?}", v);  // ERROR! v is now invalid
}

Note: It is instructive to create a Rust project and put this mode in main.rs then look at it in VSCode with the Rust Analyzer extension. Note the datatype decorations that VSCode places next to the variables.

Note #2: The println! macro is pretty flexible in the types of arguments it can take. In the example above, we are passing it a &i32, a &mut i32, and a i32.

Key Takeaways

• Stack: fixed-size, fast; Heap: dynamic, flexible
• Ownership ensures memory safety without garbage collection
• Move semantics prevent double-free
• Borrowing allows temporary access without ownership transfer
• One mutable reference XOR many immutable references
• References must be valid (no dangling pointers)
• Compiler enforces these rules at compile time

Best Practices

1. Prefer borrowing over ownership transfer when possible
2. Use immutable references by default
3. Keep mutable reference scope minimal
4. Let the compiler guide you with error messages
5. Clone only when necessary (performance cost)
6. Understand whether functions need ownership or just access

In-Class Exercise (10 minutes)

Challenge: Fix the Broken Code

The following code has several ownership and borrowing errors. Your task is to fix them so the code compiles and runs correctly.

I'll call on volunteers to present their solutions.

fn main() {
    let mut numbers = vec![1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
    
    // Task 1: Calculate sum without taking ownership
    let total = calculate_sum(numbers);
    
    // Task 2: Double each number in the vector
    double_values(numbers);
    
    // Task 3: Print both the original and doubled values
    println!("Original sum: {}", total);
    println!("Doubled values: {:?}", numbers);
    
    // Task 4: Add new numbers to the vector
    add_numbers(numbers, vec![6, 7, 8]);
    println!("After adding: {:?}", numbers);
}

fn calculate_sum(v: Vec<i32>) -> i32 {
    let mut sum = 0;
    for num in v {
        sum += num;
    }
    sum
}

fn double_values(v: Vec<i32>) {
    for num in v {
        num *= 2;
    }
}

fn add_numbers(v: Vec<i32>, new_nums: Vec<i32>) {
    for num in new_nums {
        v.push(num);
    }
}

Hints:

• Think about which functions need ownership vs borrowing
• Consider when you need & vs &mut
• Remember: you can't modify through an immutable reference
• The original vector should still be usable in main after function calls

Let's Review

Review solutions.

Slices in Rust

About This Module

This module introduces slices, a powerful feature in Rust that provides references to contiguous sub-sequences of collections. We'll explore how slices work with arrays and vectors, their memory representation, and how they interact with Rust's borrowing rules.

Prework

Prework Reading

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 4.3: The Slice Type

You might want to go back and review:

• Chapter 4.1: What Is Ownership?
• Chapter 4.2: References and Borrowing

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. How do slices provide safe access to sub-sequences without copying data?
2. What are the advantages of slices over passing entire arrays or vectors?
3. How do borrowing rules apply to slices and prevent data races?
4. When would you use slices instead of iterators for processing sub-sequences?
5. What are the memory efficiency benefits of slices compared to copying data?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Create and use immutable and mutable slices from arrays and vectors
• Understand slice syntax and indexing operations
• Apply borrowing rules correctly when working with slices
• Analyze the memory representation of slices
• Use slices for efficient sub-sequence processing without data copying
• Design functions that work with slice parameters for flexibility

Slices (§4.3)

Slice = reference to a contiguous sub-sequence of elements in a collection

Slices of an array:

• array of type [T, _], e.g. datatype and length
• slice of type &[T] (immutable) or &mut [T] (mutable)

fn main() {
    let arr: [i32; 5] = [0,1,2,3,4];
    println!("arr: {:?}", arr);

    // immutable slice of an array
    let slice: &[i32] = &arr[1..3];
    println!("slice: {:?}",slice);
    println!("slice[0]: {}", slice[0]);
}

The slice slice is a reference to the array arr from index 1 to 3 and hence is borrowed from arr.

Immutable slices

Note:

• The slice is a reference to the array, which by default is immutable.
• Even if the source array is mutable, the slice is immutable.

fn main() {
    let mut arr: [i32; 5] = [0,1,2,3,4];
    println!("arr: {:?}", arr);

    // immutable slice of an array
    let slice: &[i32] = &arr[1..3];
    println!("slice: {:?}",slice);
    println!("slice[0]: {}", slice[0]);

    slice[0] = 100;  // ERROR! Cannot modify an immutable slice
    println!("slice: {:?}", slice);
    println!("slice[0]: {}", slice[0]);
}

Mutable slices

We can create a mutable slice from a mutable array which borrows from arr mutably.

fn main(){
    // mutable slice of an array
    let mut arr = [0,1,2,3,4];
    println!("arr: {:?}", arr);

    let mut slice = &mut arr[2..4];
    println!("slice: {:?}",slice);

    // ERROR: Cannot modify the source array after a borrow
    //arr[0] = 10;
    //println!("arr: {:?}", arr);

    println!("\nLet's modify the slice[0]");
    slice[0] = slice[0] * slice[0];
    println!("slice[0]: {}", slice[0]);
    println!("slice: {:?}", slice);

    println!("arr: {:?}", arr);
}

What about this?

What's happening here?!?!?

Why are we able to modify the array after the slice is created?

fn main() {
    let mut arr: [i32; 5] = [0,1,2,3,4];
    println!("arr: {:?}", arr);

    // immutable slice of an array
    let slice: &[i32] = &arr[1..3];
    println!("slice: {:?}",slice);
    println!("slice[0]: {}", slice[0]);

    arr[0] = 10;  // OK! We can modify the array
    println!("arr: {:?}", arr);

    // What happens if you uncomment this line?
    //println!("slice: {:?}", slice);

}

Answer:

Slices with Vectors

Work for vectors too!

fn main() {
let mut v = vec![0,1,2,3,4];
{
    let slice = &v[1..3];
    println!("{:?}",slice);
}

{
    let mut slice = &mut v[1..3];
    
    // iterating over slices works as well
    for x in slice {
        *x *= 1000;
    }
};
println!("{:?}",v);
}

Slices are references: all borrowing rules still apply!

• At most one mutable reference at a time
• No immutable references allowed with a mutable reference
• Many immutable references allowed simultaneously

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// this won't work!
let mut v = vec![1,2,3,4,5,6,7];
{
    let ref_1 = &mut v[2..5];
    let ref_2 = &v[1..3];
    ref_1[0] = 7;
    println!("{}",ref_2[1]);
}
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// and this reordering will
let mut v = vec![1,2,3,4,5,6,7];
{
    let ref_1 = &mut v[2..5];
    ref_1[0] = 7;   // ref_1 can be dropped
    let ref_2 = &v[1..3];
    println!("{}",ref_2[1]);
}
}

Memory representation of slices

• Pointer
• Length

Let's return to &str?

&str is slice

• &str can be a slice of a string literal or a slice of a String

• &str itself (the reference) is stored on the stack,

• but the string data it points to can be in different locations depending on the context.

Let's break this down:

The &str Data (Various Locations)

The actual string data that &str points to can be in:

1. Binary's read-only data segment (most common for string literals):

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let s: &str = "hello";  // "hello" is in read-only memory

println!("&s:{:p}", &s);
println!("ptr: {:p}", s.as_ptr());
println!("len: {}", s.len());
// println!("capacity: {}\n", s.capacity()); // ERROR! Not applicable
}

2. Heap (when it's a slice of a String):

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let string = String::from("hello");
let s: &str = &string;  // points to heap-allocated data

println!("&s:{:p}", &s);
println!("ptr: {:p}", s.as_ptr());
println!("len: {}", s.len());
}

True/False Statements on Rust Slices

Enter your answers into piazza poll.

Summary

• Slices are references to contiguous sub-sequences of elements in a collection
• Slices are immutable by default
• We can create mutable slices from mutable arrays
• Slices are references: all borrowing rules still apply!
• &str is a slice of a string literal or a slice of a String
• &str itself (the reference) is stored on the stack, but the string data it points to can be in different locations depending on the context.

Modules and Organization

About This Module

This module introduces Rust's module system for organizing code into logical namespaces. You'll learn how to create modules, control visibility with public/private access, navigate module hierarchies, and organize code across multiple files.

Prework

Prework Readings

Read the following sections from "The Rust Programming Language" book:

• Chapter 7: Managing Growing Projects with Packages, Crates, and Modules - Complete chapter
• Chapter 7.2: Defining Modules to Control Scope and Privacy
• Chapter 7.4: Bringing Paths into Scope with the use Keyword

Pre-lecture Reflections

Before class, consider these questions:

1. Why is code organization important in larger software projects?
2. What are the benefits of controlling which parts of your code are public vs. private?
3. How do namespaces prevent naming conflicts in large codebases?
4. When would you organize code into separate files vs. keeping it in one file?
5. How do module systems help with code maintainability and collaboration?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Create and organize code using Rust's module system
• Control access to code using pub and private visibility
• Navigate module hierarchies using paths and use statements
• Organize modules across multiple files and directories
• Design clean module interfaces for code reusability
• Apply module patterns to structure larger programs

Introduction to Modules

Up to now: our functions and data types (mostly) in the same namespace:

• exception: functions in structs and enums

Question: What is a namespace?

One can create a namespace, using mod

mod things_to_say {
    fn say_hi() {
        say("Hi");
    }
    
    fn say_bye() {
        say("Bye");
    }
    
    fn say(what: &str) {
        println!("{}!",what);
    }
}
fn main() {}

Intro, continued...

You have to use the module name to refer to a function.

That's necessary, but not sufficient!

mod things_to_say {
    fn say_hi() {
        say("Hi");
    }
    
    fn say_bye() {
        say("Bye");
    }
    
    fn say(what: &str) {
        println!("{}!",what);
    }
}

fn main() {
    // ERROR: function `say_hi` is private
    things_to_say::say_hi();
}

Module Basics

• By default, all definitions in the namespace are private.

• Advantage: Can hide all internally used code and control external interface

• Use pub to make functions or types public

mod things_to_say {
    pub fn say_hi() {
        say("Hi");
    }
    
    pub fn say_bye() {
        say("Bye");
    }
    
    fn say(what: &str) {
        println!("{}!",what);
    }
}

fn main() {
    things_to_say::say_hi();
    things_to_say::say_bye();

    // ERROR: function `say` is private
    //things_to_say::say("Say what??");
}

Why modules?

• limit number of additional identifiers in the main namespace

• organize your codebase into meaningful parts

• hide auxiliary internal code

• By default, all definitions in the namespace are private.

• Advantage: one can hide all internally used code and publish an external interface

• Ideally you semantically version your external interface. See https://semver.org

• Use pub to make functions or types public

Nesting possible

mod level_1 {

    mod level_2_1 {

        mod level_3 {

            pub fn where_am_i() {println!("3");}

        }

        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_1");}
        
    }
    
    mod level_2_2 {
        
        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_2");}
        
    }
    
    pub fn where_am_i() {println!("1");}
    
}

fn main() {
    level_1::level_2_1::level_3::where_am_i();
}

Nesting, continued...

But all parent modules have to be public as well.

mod level_1 {

    pub mod level_2_1 {

        pub mod level_3 {

            pub fn where_am_i() {println!("3");}

        }

        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_1");}
        
    }
    
    pub mod level_2_2 {
        
        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_2");}
        
    }
    
    pub fn where_am_i() {println!("1");}
    
}

fn main() {
    level_1::level_2_2::where_am_i();
}

Module Hierarchy

level_1
├── level_2_1
│   └── level_3
│       └── where_am_i
│   └── where_am_i
├── level_2_2
│   └── where_am_i
└── where_am_i

Paths to modules

pub mod level_1 {
    pub mod level_2_1 {
        pub mod level_3 {
            pub fn where_am_i() {println!("3");}
            pub fn call_someone_else() {
                where_am_i();
            }
        }
        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_1");}
    }
    pub mod level_2_2 {   
        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_2");}
    }
    pub fn where_am_i() {println!("1");}
}

fn where_am_i() {println!("main namespace");}


fn main() {
    level_1::level_2_1::level_3::call_someone_else();
}

Question: What will be printed?

Paths to modules

Global paths: start from crate

mod level_1 {
    pub mod level_2_1 {
        pub mod level_3 {
            pub fn where_am_i() {println!("3");}
            pub fn call_someone_else() {
                crate::where_am_i();
                crate::level_1::level_2_2::
                    where_am_i();
                where_am_i();
            }
        }
        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_1");}
    }
    pub mod level_2_2 {   
        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_2");}
    }
    pub fn where_am_i() {println!("1");}
}

fn where_am_i() {println!("main namespace");}


fn main() {
    level_1::level_2_1::level_3::call_someone_else();
}

Question: What will be printed?

Paths to modules

Local paths:

• going one or many levels up via super

mod level_1 {
    pub mod level_2_1 {
        pub mod level_3 {
            pub fn where_am_i() {println!("3");}
            
            pub fn call_someone_else() {
                super::where_am_i();
                super::super::where_am_i();
                super::super::
                    level_2_2::where_am_i();
            }
        }
        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_1");}
    }
    pub mod level_2_2 {   
        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_2");}
    }
    
    pub fn where_am_i() {println!("1");}
}

fn where_am_i() {println!("main namespace");}


fn main() {
    level_1::level_2_1::level_3::call_someone_else();
}

Question: What will be printed?

use to import things into the current scope

mod level_1 {
    pub mod level_2_1 {
        pub mod level_3 {
            pub fn where_am_i() {println!("3");}
            pub fn call_someone_else() {
                super::where_am_i();
            }
            pub fn i_am_here() {println!("I am here");}
        }
        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_1");}
    }
    pub mod level_2_2 {   
        pub fn where_am_i() {println!("2_2");}
    }
    pub fn where_am_i() {println!("1");}
}

fn where_am_i() {println!("main namespace");}


fn main() {
// Bring a submodule to current scope:
use level_1::level_2_2;
level_2_2::where_am_i();

// Bring a specific function/type to current scope:
// (Don't do that, it can be confusing).
use level_1::level_2_1::where_am_i;
where_am_i();

// Bring multiple items to current scope:
use level_1::level_2_1::level_3::{call_someone_else, i_am_here};
call_someone_else();
i_am_here();

// ERROR: Name clash! Won't work!
//use level_1::where_am_i;
//where_am_i();
}

Structs within modules

• You can put structs and methods in modules
• Fields are private by default
• Use pub to make fields public

pub mod test {
    #[derive(Debug)]
    pub struct Point {
       x: i32,
       pub y: i32,
    }

    impl Point {
        pub fn create(x:i32,y:i32) -> Point {
            Point{x,y}
        }
        
    }

}


use test::Point;

fn main() {
    let mut p = Point::create(2,3);
    println!("{:?}",p);

    p.x = 3;  // Error: try commenting this out
    p.y = 4;  // Why does this work?
    println!("{:?}",p);
}

Structs within modules

Make fields and functions public to be accessible

mod test {
    #[derive(Debug)]
    pub struct Point {
       pub x: i32,
       y: i32,  // still private
    }

    impl Point {
        pub fn create(x:i32,y:i32) -> Point {
            Point{x,y}
        }

        // public function can access private data
        pub fn update_y(&mut self, y:i32) {
            self.y = y;
        }
    }

}

use test::Point;

fn main() {
let mut p = Point::create(2,3);
println!("{:?}",p);
p.x = 3;
println!("{:?}",p);

p.update_y(2022);  // only way to update y
println!("{:?}",p);

// The create function seemed trivial in the past but the following won't work:
//let mut q = Point{x: 4, y: 5};
}

True/False Statements on Rust Modules

Enter your answers into piazza poll.

Recap

• You can put structs and methods in modules
• Fields are private by default
• Use pub to make fields public
• Use use to import things into the current scope
• Use mod to create modules
• Use crate and super to navigate the module hierarchy

Rust Crates and External Dependencies

About This Module

This module introduces Rust's package management system through crates, which are reusable libraries and programs. Students will learn how to find, add, and use external crates in their projects, with hands-on experience using popular crates like rand, csv, and serde. The module covers the distinction between binary and library crates, how to manage dependencies in Cargo.toml, and best practices for working with external code.

Prework

Before this lecture, please read:

• The Rust Book Chapter 7: "Managing Growing Projects with Packages, Crates, and Modules"
• The Rust Book Chapter 14: "More about Cargo and Crates.io"

Pre-lecture Reflections

1. What is the difference between a package, crate, and module in Rust?
2. How does Cargo manage dependencies and versions?
3. Why might you choose to use an external crate versus implementing functionality yourself?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• Distinguish between binary and library crates
• Add external dependencies to your Rust project using Cargo.toml
• Use popular crates like rand, csv, and serde in your code
• Understand semantic versioning and dependency management
• Evaluate external crates for trustworthiness and stability

What are crates?

Crates provided by a project:

• Binary Crate: Programs you compile to an executable and run.
  • Each must have a main() function that is the program entry point
  • So far we have seen single binaries
• Library Crate: Define functionality than can be shared with multiple projects.
  • Do not have a main() function
  • A single library crate: can be used by other projects

Shared crates

Where to find crates:

• Official list: crates.io
• Unofficial list: lib.rs (including ones not yet promoted to crates.io)

Documentation:

• docs.rs

Crate rand: random numbers

See: crates.io/crates/rand

Tell Rust you want to use it:

• cargo add rand for the latest version
• cargo add rand --version="0.8.5" for a specific version
• cargo remove rand to remove it

This adds to Cargo.toml:

[dependencies]
rand = "0.8.5"

Note: Show demo in VS Code.

Question: Why put the version number in Cargo.toml?

To generate a random integer from 1 through 100:

extern crate rand; // only needed in mdbook
use rand::Rng;

fn main() {
  let mut rng = rand::rng();
  let secret_number = rng.random_range(1..=100);
  println!("The secret number is: {secret_number}");
}

Useful Crates

• csv: reading and writing CSV files
• serde: serializing and deserializing data
• serde_json: serializing and deserializing JSON data

See: crates.io/crates/csv See: crates.io/crates/serde See: crates.io/crates/serde_json

Rust Project Organization and Multi-Binary Projects

About This Module

This module covers advanced Rust project organization, focusing on how to structure projects with multiple binaries and libraries. Students will learn about Rust's package system, understand the relationship between packages, crates, and modules, and gain hands-on experience organizing complex projects. The module also discusses best practices for managing external dependencies and the trade-offs involved in using third-party crates.

Prework

Before this lecture, please read:

• The Rust Book Chapter 7: "Managing Growing Projects with Packages, Crates, and Modules"
• The Rust Book Chapter 7.1: "Packages and Crates"

Pre-lecture Reflections

1. What are the conventional file locations for binary and library crates in a Rust project?
2. How does Rust's module system help organize large projects?
3. What are the security and maintenance implications of depending on external crates?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• Organize Rust projects with multiple binaries and libraries
• Understand the Rust module system hierarchy (packages → crates → modules)
• Configure Cargo.toml for complex project structures
• Evaluate external dependencies for trustworthiness and stability
• Apply best practices for project organization and dependency management

Using Multiple Libraries or Binaries in your Project

• So far, we went from a single source file, to multiple source files organized as Modules.

• But we built our projects into single binaries with cargo build or cargo run.

• We can also build multiple binaries.

When we create a new program with cargo new my_program, it creates a folder

.
├── Cargo.toml
└── src
    └── main.rs

And Cargo.toml has:

[package]
name = "my_program"
version = "0.1.0"
edition = "2024"

[dependencies]

Our program is considered a Rust package with the source in src/main.rs that compiles (cargo build) into a single binary at target/debug/my_program.

The Rust Module System

• Packages: Cargo's way of organizing, building, testing, and sharing crates
  • It's a bundle of one or more crates.
• Crates: A tree of modules that produces a library or executable
• Modules and use: Let you control the organization, scope, and privacy of paths
• Paths: A way of naming an item, such as a struct, function, or module, e.g. my_library::library1::my_function

A package can contain as many binary crates as you want, but only one library crate.

By default src/main.rs is the crate root of a binary crate with the same name as the package (e.g. my_program).

Also by default, src/lib.rs would contain a library crate with the same name as the package and src/lib.rs is its crate root.

How to add multiple binaries to your project

[[bin]]  
name = "some_name"  
path = "some_directory/some_file.rs"  

The file some_file.rs must contain a fn main()

How to add a library to your project

[lib]  
name = "some_name"  
path = "src/lib/lib.rs"  

The file lib.rs does not need to contain a fn main()

You can have as many binaries are you want in a project but only one library!

Example: simple_package

Create a new project with cargo new simple_package.

Copy the code below so your has the same structure and contents.

• Try cargo run.
• Since there are two binaries, you can try cargo run --bin first_bin or cargo run --bin second_bin.

.
├── Cargo.lock
├── Cargo.toml
└── src
    ├── bin
    │   └── other.rs
    ├── lib
    │   ├── bar.rs
    │   ├── foo.rs
    │   └── lib.rs
    └── main.rs

Cargo.toml:

[package]
name = "simple_library2"
version = "0.1.0"
edition = "2021"

# the double brackets indicate this is part of an array of bins
[[bin]]
name = "first_bin"
path = "src/main.rs"

[[bin]]
name = "second_bin"
path = "src/bin/other.rs"

# single bracket means we can have only one lib
[lib]
name = "librs"
path = "src/lib/lib.rs"

[dependencies]

src/bin/other.rs:

use librs;

fn main() {
   println!("This is other.rs using a library");
   librs::bar::say_something();
}

src/lib/bar.rs:

use crate::foo;

pub fn say_something() {
  println!("Bar");
  foo::say_something();
}

src/lib/foo.rs:

pub fn say_something() {
   println!("Foo");
}

src/lib/lib.rs:

/*
 * This will make the compiler look for either:
 * 1. src/lib/bar.rs or 
 * 2. src/lib/bar/mod.rs
 */
pub mod bar;

/*
 * This will make the compiler look for either:
 * 1. src/lib/foo.rs or
 * 2. src/lib/foo/mod.rs
 */
pub mod foo;

src/main.rs:

use librs;

fn main() {
   println!("This is main.rs using a library");
   librs::bar::say_something();
}

Relying on external projects

Things to consider about external libraries:

• trustworthy?
• stable?
• long–term survival?
• do you really need it?

Many things best left to professionals:

Never implement your own cryptography!

Implementing your own things can be a great educational experience!

Extreme example

Yanking a published module version: article about left-pad

Rust and cargo: can't delete libraries that were published.

Testing in Rust: Ensuring Code Quality

About This Module

This short module introduces testing in Rust, covering how to write effective unit tests, integration tests, and use Rust's built-in testing framework. You'll learn testing best practices and understand why comprehensive testing is crucial for reliable software development.

Prework

Prework Reading

Please read the following sections from The Rust Programming Language Book:

• Chapter 11: Writing Automated Tests
• Chapter 11.1: How to Write Tests
• Chapter 11.2: Controlling How Tests Are Run
• Chapter 11.3: Test Organization

Pre-lecture Reflections

1. Why is testing important in software development, especially in systems programming?
2. How does Rust's testing framework compare to testing frameworks you've used in other languages?
3. What is the difference between unit tests, integration tests, and documentation tests?
4. What makes a good test case?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Write unit tests using Rust's testing framework
• Use assertions effectively in tests
• Organize and run test suites
• Understand testing best practices and test-driven development

Tests

• Why are tests useful?
• What is typical test to functional code ratio?

730K lines of code in Meta proxy server, roughly 1:1 ratio of tests to actual code. https://github.com/facebook/proxygen

Creating a Library Crate

You can use cargo to create a library project:

$ cargo new adder --lib
     Created library `adder` project
$ cd adder

This will create a new project in the adder directory with the following structure:

.
├── Cargo.lock
├── Cargo.toml
└── src
    └── lib.rs

Library Crate Code

Similar to the "Hello, world!" binary crate, the library crate is prepopulated with some minimal code.

pub fn add(left: u64, right: u64) -> u64 {
    left + right
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn it_works() {
        let result = add(2, 2);
        assert_eq!(result, 4);
    }
}

• The #[cfg(test)] attribute tells Rust to compile and run the tests only when you run cargo test.

• The use super::*; line tells Rust to bring all the items defined in the outer scope into the scope of the tests module.

• The #[test] attribute tells Rust that the function is a test function.

• The assert_eq!(result, 4); line tells Rust to check that the result of the add function is equal to 4.

  • assert! is a macro that takes a boolean expression and panics if the expression is false.
  • there are many other assert! macros, including assert_ne!, assert_approx_eq!, etc.

Running the Tests

You can run the tests with the cargo test command.

% cargo test
   Compiling adder v0.1.0 (...path_to_adder/adder)
    Finished `test` profile [unoptimized + debuginfo] target(s) in 0.50s
     Running unittests src/lib.rs (target/debug/deps/adder-1dfa21403f25b3c4)

running 1 test
test tests::it_works ... ok

test result: ok. 1 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s

   Doc-tests adder

running 0 tests

test result: ok. 0 passed; 0 failed; 0 ignored; 0 measured; 0 filtered out; finished in 0.00s

• 0 ignored means no tests were ignored with the #[ignore] attribute.
• 0 measured means no tests were measured with Rust's built-in benchmarking framework.
• 0 filtered out means no subset of tests were specified
• Doc-tests automatically test any example code that is provided in /// comments.

Example Unit Test Code

Here is an example of a set of tests for a function that doubles the elements of a vector.

fn doubleme(inp: &Vec<f64>) -> Vec<f64> {
    let mut nv = inp.clone();
    for (i, x) in inp.iter().enumerate() {
        nv[i] = *x * 2.0;
    }
    nv
}

#[test]
fn test_doubleme_positive() {
    let v = vec![1.0, 2.0, 3.0];
    let w = doubleme(&v);
    for (x, y) in v.iter().zip(w.iter()) {
        assert_eq!(*y, 2.0 * *x, "Element is not double");
    }
}
#[test]
fn test_doubleme_negative() {
    let v = vec![-1.0, -2.0, -3.0];
    let w = doubleme(&v);
    for (x, y) in v.iter().zip(w.iter()) {
        assert_eq!(*y, 2.0 * *x, "Negative element is not double");
    }
}
#[test]
fn test_doubleme_zero() {
    let v = vec![0.0];
    let w = doubleme(&v);
    for (x, y) in v.iter().zip(w.iter()) {
        assert_eq!(*y, 2.0 * *x, "Zero element is not double");
    }
}
#[test]
fn test_doubleme_empty() {
    let v: Vec<f64> = vec![];
    let w = doubleme(&v);
    assert_eq!(w.len(), 0, "Empty Vector is not empty");
}

fn testme() {
    let v: Vec<f64> = vec![2.0, 3.0, 4.0];
    let w = doubleme(&v);
    println!("V = {:?} W = {:?}", v, w);
}

fn main() {
    testme();
}

Further Reading

Read 11.1 How to Write Tests for more information.

In-Class Activity

In this activity, you will write tests for a function that finds the second largest element in a slice of integers.

Be creative with your tests! With the right tests, you will be able to find the bug in the function.

Fix the bug in the function so all tests pass.

Part 1: Create a New Library Project

Create a new Rust library project:

cargo new --lib testing_practice
cd testing_practice

Part 2: Implement and Test

Replace the contents of src/lib.rs with the following function:

/// Returns the second largest element in a slice of integers.
/// Returns None if there are fewer than 2 distinct elements.
///
/// # Examples
/// ```
/// use testing_practice::second_largest;
/// assert_eq!(second_largest(&[1, 2, 3]), Some(2));
/// assert_eq!(second_largest(&[5, 5, 5]), None);
/// ```
pub fn second_largest(numbers: &[i32]) -> Option<i32> {
    if numbers.len() < 2 {
        return None;
    }
    
    let mut largest = numbers[0];
    let mut second = numbers[1];
    
    if second > largest {
        std::mem::swap(&mut largest, &mut second);
    }
    
    for &num in &numbers[2..] {
        if num > largest {
            second = largest;
            largest = num;
        } else if num > second {
            second = num;
        }
    }
    
    if largest == second {
        None
    } else {
        Some(second)
    }
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use super::*;

    #[test]
    fn test_all_same() {
        let result = second_largest(&[1, 1, 1]);
        assert_eq!(result, None);
    }
}

Part 3: Write Tests

Your task is to write at least 3-4 comprehensive tests for this function. Think about:

• Normal cases
• Edge cases (empty, single element, etc.)
• Special cases (all same values, duplicates of largest, etc.)

Add your tests in a #[cfg(test)] module below the function.

Part 4: Debug

Run cargo test. If any of your tests fail, there is a bug in the function. Your goal is to:

1. Identify what test case reveals the bug
2. Understand why the function fails
3. Fix the function so all tests pass

Hint: Think carefully about what happens when the largest element appears multiple times in the array.

Part 5: Submit

Submit your code to Gradescope.

Generics: Avoiding Code Duplication for Different Types

About This Module

This module introduces Rust's powerful generics system, which allows writing flexible, reusable code that works with multiple types while maintaining type safety and performance. You'll learn how to create generic functions, structs, and methods, as well as understand key built-in generic types like Option<T> and Result<T, E>.

Prework

Prework Reading

Please read the following sections from The Rust Programming Language Book:

• Chapter 10.1: Generic Data Types
• Chapter 10.2: Traits (for understanding trait bounds)
• Chapter 6.1: Defining an Enum (for Option review)
• Chapter 9.2: Recoverable Errors with Result (for Result<T, E> review)

Pre-lecture Reflections

1. How do generics in Rust compare to similar features in languages you know (templates in C++, generics in Java)?
2. What are the performance implications of Rust's monomorphization approach?
3. Why might Option<T> be safer than null values in other languages?
4. When would you choose Result<T, E> over Option<T>?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Write generic functions and structs using type parameters
• Apply trait bounds to constrain generic types
• Use Option<T> and Result<T, E> for safe error handling
• Understand monomorphization and its performance benefits

How python handles argument types

Python is dynamically typed and quite flexible in this regard. We can pass many different types to a function.

def max(x,y):
    return x if x > y else y

>>> max(3,2)
3

>>> max(3.1,2.2)

3.1

>>> max('s', 't')
't'

>>> max('s',5)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
  File "<stdin>", line 2, in max
TypeError: '>' not supported between instances of 'str' and 'int'

Rust without generics

Rust is strongly typed, so we would have to create a version of the function for each type.

fn max_i32(x:i32,y:i32) -> i32 {
    if x > y {x} else {y}
}

fn max_f64(x:f64,y:f64) -> f64 {
    if x > y {x} else {y}
}

fn max_char(x:char,y:char) -> char {
    if x > y {x} else {y}
}

fn main() {
    println!("{}", max_i32(3,8));
    println!("{}", max_f64(3.3,8.1));
    println!("{}", max_char('a','b'));
}

Rust Generics

Generics allow us to write one version of a function and then have the compiler generate versions for different types.

The process of going from one to the other is monomorphization.

  GENERIC SOURCE                 COMPILER OUTPUT (roughly)
┌─────────────────┐            ┌─────────────────────┐
│ fn pass<T>(x:T) │  ────────► │ fn pass_i32(x:i32)  │
│ { ... }         │            │ fn pass_f64(x:f64)  │
│                 │            │ fn pass_char(x:char)│
└─────────────────┘            └─────────────────────┘
     One source                 Multiple functions

Rust Generics: Syntax

Use the <T> syntax to indicate that the function is generic.

The T is a placeholder for the type and could be any character.

fn passit<T>(x:T) -> T {
    x
}

fn main() {
let x = passit(5);
println!("x is {x}");

let x = passit(1.1);
println!("x is {x}");

let x = passit('s');
println!("x is {x}");
}

Watch Out!

Let's try this:

// ERROR -- this doesn't work
fn show<T>(x:T,y:T){
    println!("x is {x} and y is {y}");
}

fn main() {
    show(3,5);
    show(1.1, 2.1);
    show('s', 't');
}

The Rust compiler is thorough enough to recognize that not all generic type may have the behavior we want.

The Fix: Trait Bounds

We can place restrictions on the generic types we would support.

fn show<T: std::fmt::Display>(x:T,y:T){
    println!("x is {x} and y is {y}");
}

fn main() {
    show(3,5);
    show(1.1, 2.1);
    show('s', 't');
    show( "hello", "world");
    show( true, false);
    //show( vec![1,2,3], vec![4,5,6]); // doesn't work
}

We'll talk about traits in the next module.

Another Watch Out!

// ERROR -- similarly we could try this, but it doesn't work
fn max<T>(x:T,y:T) -> T {
        if x > y {x} else {y}
}

fn main() {
    println!("{}", max(3,8));
    println!("{}", max(3.3,8.1));
    println!("{}", max('a','b'));
}

Not all types support the > operator.

The Fix: Trait Bounds

We can further restrict the type of T to only allow types that implement the PartialOrd trait.

// add info that elements of T are comparable
fn max<T:PartialOrd>(x:T,y:T) -> T {
        if x > y {x} else {y}
}

fn main() {
    println!("{}",max(3,8));
    println!("{}",max(3.3,8.1));
    println!("{}",max('a','b'));
}

Generics / Generic data types

In other programming languages:

• C++: templates
• Java: generics
• Go: generics
• ML, Haskell: parametric polymorphism

Generic Structs

We can define a struct that is generic.

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Point<T> {
    x: T,
    y: T,
}

fn main() {
let point_int = Point {x: 2, y: 3};
println!("{:?}", point_int);

let point_float = Point {x: 4.2, y: 3.0};
println!("{:?}", point_float);
}

Struct contructor method

We can define methods in the context of Structs that support generic data types

impl<T> Point<T> means that this is an implementation block and all the methods are implemented for any type T that Point might be instantiated with.

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Point<T> {
    x: T,
    y: T,
}

// define a constructor method for the Point struct
impl<T> Point<T> {
    fn create(x:T,y:T) -> Point<T> {
        Point{x,y}
    }
}

fn main() {
    // create instances of the Point struct using the constructor method
    let point = Point::create(1, 2);
    let point2 = Point::<char>::create('c','d');
    let point3 : Point<char> = Point::create('e','f');
    println!("{:?} {:?} {:?}", point, point2, point3);
}

Struct swap method

Let's implement another method that operates on an instance of the struct, hence the use of &mut self.

Remember, &mut self means that the method is allowed to modify the instance of the struct.

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Point<T> {
    x: T,
    y: T,
}

// define a constructor method for the Point struct
impl<T> Point<T> {
    fn create(x:T,y:T) -> Point<T> {
        Point{x,y}
    }
}

// implement a method that swaps the x and y values
impl<T:Copy> Point<T> {
    fn swap(&mut self) {
        let z = self.x;
        self.x = self.y;
        self.y = z;
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mut point = Point::create(2,3);
    println!("{:?}",point);
    point.swap();
    println!("{:?}",point);
}

impl<T:Copy> specifies that T must implement the Copy trait.

You can see what happens if we remove the Copy trait.

Question: What datatype might not implement the Copy trait?

Specialized versions

Even though we have generic functions defined, we can still specify methods/functions for specific types.

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Point<T> {
    x: T,
    y: T,
}

// define a constructor method for the Point struct
impl<T> Point<T> {
    fn create(x:T,y:T) -> Point<T> {
        Point{x,y}
    }
}

impl Point<i32> {
    fn do_you_use_f64(&self) -> bool {
        false
    }
}

impl Point<f64> {
    fn do_you_use_f64(&self) -> bool {
        true
    }
}

fn main() {
    let p_i32 = Point::create(2,3);
    println!("p_i32 uses f64? {}",p_i32.do_you_use_f64());

    let p_f64 = Point::create(2.1,3.1);
    println!("p_f64 uses f64? {}",p_f64.do_you_use_f64());
}

Useful predefined generic data types

There are two useful predefined generic data types: Option<T> and Result<T, E>.

Enum Option<T>

There is a built-in enum Option<T> in the standard library with two variants:

• Some(T) -- The variant Some contains a value of type T
• None

Useful for when there may be no output

• Compared to None or null in other programming languages:
  • Rust forces handling of this case

From Option enum advantage over null:

The Option type encodes the very common scenario in which a value could be something or it could be nothing.

For example, if you request the first item in a non-empty list, you would get a value. If you request the first item in an empty list, you would get nothing.

Expressing this concept in terms of the type system means the compiler can check whether you’ve handled all the cases you should be handling;

This functionality can prevent bugs that are extremely common in other programming languages.

Example: Prime Number Finding

Here's example prime number finding code that returns Option<u32> if a prime number is found, or None if not.

fn prime(x:u32) -> bool {
    if x <= 1 { return false;}

    // factors would come in pairs. if one factor is > sqrt(x), then
    // the other factor must be < sqrt(x).
    // So we only have to search up to sqrt(x)
    for i in 2..=((x as f64).sqrt() as u32) {
        if x % i == 0 { // can be divided by i without a remainder -> not prime
            return false;
        }
    } 
    true
}

fn prime_in_range(a:u32,b:u32) -> Option<u32> {  // returns an Option<u32>
    for i in a..=b {
        if prime(i) {return Some(i);}
    }
    None
}

fn main() {
    println!("prime in 90-906? {:?}",prime_in_range(90,906));

    println!("prime in 90-92? {:?}",prime_in_range(90,92));

    let tmp : Option<u32> = prime_in_range(830,856);
    println!("prime in 830-856? {:?}",tmp);
}

• If a prime number is found, it returns Some(u32) variant with the prime number.
• If the prime number is not found, it returns None.

Extracting the content of Some(...)

There are various ways to extract the content of Some(...)

• if let
• match
• unwrap()

fn prime(x:u32) -> bool {
    if x <= 1 { return false;}

    // factors would come in pairs. if one factor is > sqrt(x), then
    // the other factor must be < sqrt(x).
    // So we only have to search up to sqrt(x)
    for i in 2..=((x as f64).sqrt() as u32) {
        if x % i == 0 { // can be divided by i without a remainder -> not prime
            return false;
        }
    } 
    true
}

fn prime_in_range(a:u32,b:u32) -> Option<u32> {  // returns an Option<u32>
    for i in a..=b {
        if prime(i) {return Some(i);}
    }
    None
}

fn main() {
    let tmp : Option<u32> = prime_in_range(830,856);

    // extracting the content of Some(...)
    if let Some(x) = tmp {
        println!("{}",x);
    }

    match tmp {
        Some(x) => println!("{}",x),
        None => println!("None"),
    };

    println!("Another way {}", tmp.unwrap())
}

Be careful with unwrap()

Be careful with unwrap(), it will crash the program if the value is None.

//ERROR
fn main() {
    // extracting the content of Some(...)
    let tmp: Option<u32> = None;  // try changing this to Some(3)

    if let Some(x) = tmp {
        println!("{}",x);   // will skip this block if tmp is None
    }
    match tmp {
        Some(x) => println!("{}",x),
        None => println!("{:?}", tmp),
    };

    // Boom!!!!! Will crash the program if tmp is None
    println!("Another way {}", tmp.unwrap())
}

Interesting related fact: Bertrand's postulate

There is always a prime number in $[k,2k]$. See Prime Number Theorem

Enum Option<T>: useful methods

Check the variant

• .is_some() -> bool
• .is_none() -> bool

Get the value in Some or terminate with an error

• .unwrap() -> T
• .expect(message) -> T

Get the value in Some or a default value

• .unwrap_or(default_value:T) -> T

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = Some(3);
println!("x is some? {}",x.is_some());
}

If exception, print a message.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Try line 3 instead of 4

//let x:Option<u32> = Some(3);
let x = None;
let y:u32 = x.expect("This should have been an integer!!!");
println!("y is {}",y);
}

A better way to handle this is to use unwrap_or().

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let x = None;
println!("{}",x.unwrap_or(0));

let y = Some(3);
println!("{}",y.unwrap_or(0));

}

More details:

• https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/option/
• https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/option/enum.Option.html

Enum Result<T, E>

Another built-in enum Result<T, E> in the standard library with two variants:

• Ok(T)
• Err(E)

Useful when you want to pass a solution or information about an error.

fn divide(a:u32,b:u32) -> Result<u32,String> {
    match b {
        0 => Err(String::from("Division by zero")),
        _ => Ok(a / b)
    }
}

fn main() {
    println!("{:?}",divide(3,0));
    println!("{:?}",divide(2022,3));
}

Enum Result<T, E>: useful methods

Check the variant

• .is_ok() -> bool
• .is_err() -> bool

Get the value in Ok or terminate with an error

• .unwrap() -> T
• .expect(message) -> T

Get the value in Ok or a default value

• .unwrap_or(default_value:T) -> T

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let r1 : Result<i32,()> = Ok(3);
println!("{}",r1.is_err());
println!("{}",r1.is_ok());
println!("{}",r1.unwrap());
}

But again, that will crash the program if the value is Err, so use unwrap_or().

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let r2 : Result<u32,()> = Err(());
let r3 : Result<u32,()> = Ok(123);
println!("r2: {}\nr3: {}",
    r2.unwrap_or(0),
    r3.unwrap_or(0));

}

More details:

• https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/result/
• https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/result/enum.Result.html

In-Class Poll

Will be opened and made visible in class.

In-Class Activity: Practicing Generics

Time: 10 minutes

Instructions

Work individually or in pairs. Complete as many exercises as you can in 10 minutes. You can test your code in the Rust playground or in your local environment.

Exercise 1: Fix the Generic Function (3 minutes)

The following code doesn't compile. Fix it by adding the appropriate trait bound(s).

// TODO: Fix this function so it compiles
fn compare_and_print<T>(a: T, b: T) {
    if a > b {
        println!("{} is greater than {}", a, b);
    } else {
        println!("{} is less than or equal to {}", a, b);
    }
}

fn main() {
    compare_and_print(10, 5);
    compare_and_print(2.71, 3.14);
    compare_and_print('z', 'a');
}

Exercise 2: Complete the Generic Struct (4 minutes)

Complete the Container<T> struct by implementing the missing methods.

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Container<T> {
    value: T,
}

impl<T> Container<T> {
    // TODO: Implement a constructor that creates a new Container
    fn new(value: T) -> Container<T> {
        // Your code here
    }
    
    // TODO: Implement a method that returns a reference to the value
    fn get(&self) -> &T {
        // Your code here
    }
    
    // TODO: Implement a method that replaces the value and returns the old one
    fn replace(&mut self, new_value: T) -> T {
        // Your code here
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mut container = Container::new(42);
    println!("Value: {:?}", container.get());
    
    let old_value = container.replace(100);
    println!("Old value: {}, New value: {:?}", old_value, container.get());
}

Exercise 3: Use Option (3 minutes)

Implement a function that finds the first even number in a vector. Return Some(number) if found, or None if no even numbers exist.

// TODO: Implement this function
fn find_first_even(numbers: &Vec<i32>) -> Option<i32> {
    // Your code here
}

fn main() {
    let numbers1 = vec![1, 3, 5, 7];
    let numbers2 = vec![1, 3, 6, 7];
    
    match find_first_even(&numbers1) {
        Some(n) => println!("Found even number: {}", n),
        None => println!("No even numbers found"),
    }
    
    // TODO: Use unwrap_or() to print the result with a default value of -1
    println!("First even in numbers2: {}", /* your code here */);
}

Bonus Challenge (if you finish early)

Combine everything you learned! Create a generic Pair<T, U> struct that can hold two values of different types, and implement a method swap() that returns a new Pair<U, T> with the values swapped.

// TODO: Define the struct and implement the method
struct Pair<T, U> {
    // Your code here
}

impl<T, U> Pair<T, U> {
    fn new(first: T, second: U) -> Self {
        // Your code here
    }
    
    fn swap(self) -> Pair<U, T> {
        // Your code here
    }
}

fn main() {
    let pair = Pair::new(42, "hello");
    let swapped = pair.swap();
    // This should compile and show that types are swapped!
}

Solutions

fn compare_and_print<T: PartialOrd + std::fmt::Display>(a: T, b: T) {
    if a > b {
        println!("{} is greater than {}", a, b);
    } else {
        println!("{} is less than or equal to {}", a, b);
    }
}

fn main() {
    compare_and_print(10, 5);
    compare_and_print(2.71, 3.14);
    compare_and_print('z', 'a');
}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Container<T> {
    value: T,
}

impl<T> Container<T> {
    fn new(value: T) -> Container<T> {
        Container { value }
    }
    
    fn get(&self) -> &T {
        &self.value
    }
    
    fn replace(&mut self, new_value: T) -> T {
        std::mem::replace(&mut self.value, new_value)
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mut container = Container::new(42);
    println!("Value: {:?}", container.get());
    
    let old_value = container.replace(100);
    println!("Old value: {}, New value: {:?}", old_value, container.get());
}

fn find_first_even(numbers: &Vec<i32>) -> Option<i32> {
    for &num in numbers {
        if num % 2 == 0 {
            return Some(num);
        }
    }
    None
}

fn main() {
    let numbers1 = vec![1, 3, 5, 7];
    let numbers2 = vec![1, 3, 6, 7];
    
    match find_first_even(&numbers1) {
        Some(n) => println!("Found even number: {}", n),
        None => println!("No even numbers found"),
    }
    
    println!("First even in numbers2: {}", find_first_even(&numbers2).unwrap_or(-1));
}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct Pair<T, U> {
    first: T,
    second: U,
}

impl<T, U> Pair<T, U> {
    fn new(first: T, second: U) -> Self {
        Pair { first, second }
    }
    
    fn swap(self) -> Pair<U, T> {
        Pair {
            first: self.second,
            second: self.first,
        }
    }
}

fn main() {
    let pair = Pair::new(42, "hello");
    let swapped = pair.swap();
    // This should compile and show that types are swapped!
}

Traits: Defining Shared Behavior

About This Module

This module introduces Rust's trait system, which allows you to define shared behavior that can be implemented by different types. Traits are similar to interfaces in other languages but more powerful, enabling polymorphism, generic programming, and code reuse while maintaining Rust's safety guarantees.

Prework

Prework Reading

Please read the following sections from The Rust Programming Language Book:

• Chapter 10.2: Traits: Defining Shared Behavior
• Chapter 17.2: Using Trait Objects That Allow for Values of Different Types
• Chapter 19.3: Advanced Traits

Pre-lecture Reflections

1. How do traits in Rust compare to interfaces in Java or abstract base classes in Python?
2. What are the benefits of default method implementations in traits?
3. When would you use impl Trait vs generic type parameters with trait bounds?
4. How do trait objects enable dynamic polymorphism in Rust?

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Define and implement traits for custom types
• Use trait bounds to constrain generic functions
• Understand different syntaxes for trait parameters (impl Trait, generic bounds, where clauses)
• Return types that implement traits

Traits

From Traits: Defining Shared Behavior.

• A trait defines the functionality a particular type has and can share with other types.
• We can use traits to define shared behavior in an abstract way.
• We can use trait bounds to specify that a generic type can be any type that has certain behavior.

Some other programming languages call this an interface.

Sample trait definition

The general idea is:

• define method signatures as behaviors that need to be implemented by any type that implements the trait

• We can also define default implementations of methods.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
trait Person {
    // method header specifications
    // must be implemented by any type that implements the trait
    fn get_name(&self) -> String;
    fn get_age(&self) -> u32;
    
    // default implementation of a method 
    fn description(&self) -> String {
        format!("{} ({})",self.get_name(),self.get_age())
    }
}
}

Sample trait implementation 1

Let's look at a simple example of a trait implementation.

trait Person {
    // method header specifications
    // must be implemented by any type that implements the trait
    fn get_name(&self) -> String;
    fn get_age(&self) -> u32;
    
    // default implementation of a method 
    fn description(&self) -> String {
        format!("{} ({})",self.get_name(),self.get_age())
    }
}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct SoccerPlayer {
    name: String,
    age: u32,
    team: String,
}

// Implement the `Person` trait for `SoccerPlayer` so that 
// it can be used as a `Person` object.
impl Person for SoccerPlayer {
    fn get_age(&self) -> u32 {
        self.age
    }
    
    // We must implement all trait items
    fn get_name(&self) -> String {
        self.name.clone()
    }
}

// Implement a constructor for `SoccerPlayer`
impl SoccerPlayer {
    fn create(name:String, age:u32, team:String) -> SoccerPlayer {
        SoccerPlayer{name,age,team}
    }
}

// Since `SoccerPlayer` implements the `Person` trait, 
// we can use the `description` method on instances of `SoccerPlayer`.

fn main() {
    let zlatan = SoccerPlayer::create(String::from("Zlatan Ibrahimovic"), 40, String::from("AC Milan"));
    println!("{}", zlatan.description());
}

Sample trait implementation 2

Now let's look at another example of a trait implementation.

trait Person {
    // method header specifications
    // must be implemented by any type that implements the trait
    fn get_name(&self) -> String;
    fn get_age(&self) -> u32;
    
    // default implementation of a method 
    fn description(&self) -> String {
        format!("{} ({})",self.get_name(),self.get_age())
    }
}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct RegularPerson {
    year_born: u32,
    first_name: String,
    middle_name: String,
    last_name: String,
}

impl Person for RegularPerson {
    fn get_age(&self) -> u32 {
        2024 - self.year_born
    }
    
    fn get_name(&self) -> String {
        if self.middle_name == "" {
            format!("{} {}",self.first_name,self.last_name)
        } else {
            format!("{} {} {}",self.first_name,self.middle_name,self.last_name)
        }
    }
}

impl RegularPerson {
    fn create(first_name:String,middle_name:String,last_name:String,year_born:u32) -> RegularPerson {
        RegularPerson{first_name,middle_name,last_name,year_born}
    }
}

fn main() {
    let mlk = RegularPerson::create(
        String::from("Martin"),
        String::from("Luther"),
        String::from("King"),
        1929
    );
    println!("{}", mlk.description());
}

Using traits in functions -- Trait Bounds

So now, we specify that we need a function that accepts an object that implements the Person trait.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// sample function accepting object implementing trait
fn long_description(person: &impl Person) {
    println!("{}, who is {} years old", person.get_name(), person.get_age());
}
}

This way we know we can call the get_name and get_age methods on the object that is passed to the function.

It allows us to specify a whole class of objects and know what methods are available on them.

Examples

We can see this in action with the two examples we saw earlier.

trait Person {
    // method header specifications
    // must be implemented by any type that implements the trait
    fn get_name(&self) -> String;
    fn get_age(&self) -> u32;
    
    // default implementation of a method 
    fn description(&self) -> String {
        format!("{} ({})",self.get_name(),self.get_age())
    }
}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct SoccerPlayer {
    name: String,
    age: u32,
    team: String,
}

// Implement the `Person` trait for `SoccerPlayer` so that 
// it can be used as a `Person` object.
impl Person for SoccerPlayer {
    fn get_age(&self) -> u32 {
        self.age
    }
    
    // We must implement all trait items
    fn get_name(&self) -> String {
        self.name.clone()
    }
}

// Implement a constructor for `SoccerPlayer`
impl SoccerPlayer {
    fn create(name:String, age:u32, team:String) -> SoccerPlayer {
        SoccerPlayer{name,age,team}
    }
}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct RegularPerson {
    year_born: u32,
    first_name: String,
    middle_name: String,
    last_name: String,
}

impl Person for RegularPerson {
    fn get_age(&self) -> u32 {
        2024 - self.year_born
    }
    
    fn get_name(&self) -> String {
        if self.middle_name == "" {
            format!("{} {}",self.first_name,self.last_name)
        } else {
            format!("{} {} {}",self.first_name,self.middle_name,self.last_name)
        }
    }
}

impl RegularPerson {
    fn create(first_name:String,middle_name:String,last_name:String,year_born:u32) -> RegularPerson {
        RegularPerson{first_name,middle_name,last_name,year_born}
    }
}

// sample function accepting object implementing trait
fn long_description(person: &impl Person) {
    println!("{}, who is {} years old", person.get_name(), person.get_age());
}

fn main() {
    let mlk = RegularPerson::create(
        String::from("Martin"),
        String::from("Luther"),
        String::from("King"),
        1929
    );
    let zlatan = SoccerPlayer::create(String::from("Zlatan Ibrahimovic"), 40, String::from("AC Milan"));

    long_description(&mlk); // we can pass a `RegularPerson` object to the function
    long_description(&zlatan); // we can pass a `SoccerPlayer` object to the function
}